-NRLF 


E.    D.    MEIER,  THEO.  C.   MEIER,  S.   D.   MERTON, 

PRES'T  AND  CHIEF  ENGINEER.  V.-P.  AND  TREAS.  SECRETARY. 


BOILER  CO. 


MANUFACTURERS   OF 


WATER    TUBE    STEAM    BOILERS 

FOR  ALL 
PRESSURES,   DUTIES  AND   FUELS. 


MAIN  OFFICE: 

ROOMS  703  TO  708  BANK  OF  COMMERCE  BUILDING,  NO.  421  OLIVE  STREET, 

ST.    LOUIS,    MO. 


BRANCH  OFFICES: 
NEW  YORK,  TV.  Y.,  PHILADELPHIA,  PA.,  CHICAGO,  ILL., 

120  LIBERTY  ST.  669  THE   BOURSE.  1521   MONADNOCK  BLOC. 

t. 

BOSTON,  MASS.,  PITTSBURG,  PA., 

104   EQUITABLE   BLDG.  1212  CARNEGIE  BLDG. 


REPRESEN  TA  TI VES  : 

DENVER,  COLO.,                   MONTREAL,  CAN.,  SAN  FRANCISCO,  CAL., 

STEARNS-ROGER  MFG.  CO.              GEO.  BRUSH,  RISDON  IRON  AND  LOCO.  WORKS, 

34  KING  ST.  HOWARD  AND  BEAL  STS. 

TORONTO,  ONT.,  LOUISVILLE,  KY., 

CANADIAN  R.  M.  CUNNINGHAM, 

HEINE  SAFETY  BOILER  CO.  612  COLUMBIA  BLDG. 


ST.  LOUIS,   MO.,  AUGUST  1,    1897. 


SHALLCROSS-MCCALLUM  Co.,  ST.  Louis. 


Preface  to  Second  Edition. 


TN  PRESENTING  to  the  engineering  and  steam-using  world  this  second 
and  larger  edition  of  "HELIOS,"  following  so  closely  after  the   first 

publication,  we  wish  to  express  our  warm  appreciation  of  the  many  kind 

expressions  which  the  first  volume  has  elicited. 

The  cordial  reception  given  the  first  edition  is  in  the  nature  of  most 

distinct  and  encouraging  confirmation  of  our  belief  that,  in  the  long  run,  the 

best  boiler  that  money  can  make  will  find  the  greatest  favor  with  the  greatest 

number  of  discriminating  steam  users. 

We  submit  this  second  edition  to  the  careful  consideration  of  all  who 

are  concerned  with  the  subject  of  modern  boiler  practice. 


Preface  to  Fourtl)  Edition. 


V\/E  TAKE  great  pleasure  in  announcing  our  fourth  edition.    We  have 
added  an  article  on  "Bagasse"  as  a  boiler  fuel,  and  have  entirely 
rewritten  and  enlarged  our  article  on  "Chimneys  and  Draft." 

We  call  attention  also  to  seven  new  and  valuable  tables,  published  for 
the  first  time  in  this  edition. 

HEINE  SAFETY  BOILER  CO. 
January  i,  1895. 


Preface  to  Fiftt)  Edition. 


TN  THIS  EDITION  we  desire  to  call  special  attention  to  the  revised  table 
of  American  Coals.    The  proximate  analyses  have  been  omitted,  retain- 
ing only  the  heat  values  and  theoretical  evaporative  powers.    The  number 
of  tests  of  coals  has  been  considerably  increased. 

The  article  on  Fuel  Oil  has  also  been  considerably  enlarged. 

July  4,  1896. 


"  I  think  '  HELIOS  1  is  immense." 

j.  j.  DEKINDER, 

Con.  Eng.  Pennsylvania  R.  R.  Co. 


"An  invaluable  addition  to  the  literature  of  our  profession." 

JOHN  L.  D.  BORTHWICK. 

Chief  Engineer  U.  S.  N. 


"  '  HELIOS  '  throws  a  brilliant  light  on  many  dark  subjects." 

JOHN  E.  CODMAN,  C.  E.  &  M.  E. 

Philadelphia  Water  Works. 


"  It  easily  takes  the  lead,  even  in  this  age  of  magnificent  catalogues." 

EDWARD  K.  HILL, 

Prest.  Wheelock  Engine  Co. 


"  It  is  a  most  excellent  hand-book,  and  contains  much  valuable  information." 

R.  FORSYTH, 

Eng.  Illinois  Steel  Co. 

'•  '  HELIOS,'  the  most  complete  book  of  its  kind  I  have  ever  seen." 

JOS.  H.  SPRINGER, 

Gen'l  Supt.  Frazer  &  Chalmers. 


"  I  consider  '  HELIOS  '  an  excellent  addition  to  my  technical  library." 

D.  ASHWORTH, 

Consulting  Engineer. 

"  It  is  altogether,  to  my  mind,  one  of  the  best  publications  of  its  kind  that  has  come 
out."  A.  J.  CALDWELL, 

Hydraulic  Engineer. 

"  It  is  very  well  arranged,  has  a  good  index,  is  remarkably  free  from  errors,  and  is, 
in  fact,  just  such  a  book  as  every  engineer  should  have  at  hand." 

F.  H.  BAILEY, 

Chief  Engineer  U.  S.  N. 

"  The  data  being  the  result  of  recent  experiment  and  experience,  furnishes  a  fund  of 
information  not  found  in  other  text  books,  and  is  a  valuable  addition  to  mechanical  litera- 
ture." F.  S.  ALLEN, 

Chief  Inspector,  Hartford  Steam  Boiler  Insp.  &  Ins.  Co. 

u  Your  beautiful  contribution  to  the  technical  literature  of  the  day  was  on  my  desk 
on  my  return  from  Chicago.  It  is  one  of  the  handsomest  bits  of  its  kind  that  has  yet  ap- 
peared, and  you  are  to  be  heartily  congratulated  on  your  success." 

R.  H.  THURSTON, 

Prof.  Mech.  Engr.  Cornell  University. 


HELIOS. 

Source  of  All  Power!   Fountain  of  Light  and  Warmth  I! 

Adored  by  the  ancient  husbandman  as  the  God  who  blessed  his 
labors  with  a  harvest  of  golden  grain  ;  revered  by  the  early  sage  as 
the  great  visible  means  of  the  divine  creative  force ;  pictured  by  the 
inspired  artist  as  the  tireless  charioteer  who  drives  his  four  fiery 
steeds  daily  across  the  heavens,  his  head  circled  by  a  crown  of  rays 
his  chariot  wheel  the  disk  of  the  sun  itself. 

When  primeval  man  began  to  think,  the  sun  seemed  to  him  the 
•cause  of  all  those  wonders  in  nature  which  ministered  to  his  simple 
wants,  or  taught  his  soul  to  hope.  His  crude  feelings  of  awe  and 
gratitude  blossomed  into  worship,  and  we  find  the  sun  as  central  figure 
in  all  early  religions.  He  was  the  Suraya  of  the  Hindoos,  the  Baal 
of  the  Phoenicians,  the  Odin  of  the  Norsemen,  and  his  temples  arose 
alike  in  ancient  Mexico  and  Peru.  As  Mithras  of  the  Parsees,  he  was 
adored  as  the  symbol  of  the  Supreme  Deity,  his  messenger  and  agent 
for  all  good.  As  Osiris  he  received  the  worship  and  offerings  of  the 
Egyptians,  whose  priests,  early  adepts  in  the  rudiments  of  science, 
saw  in  him  the  cause  of  the  annual  fructifying  overflow  of  the  Nile. 

Modern  knowledge,  with  its  vast  array  of  facts  and  figures,  can 
but  verify  and  seal  the  faith  of  these  ancient  observers.  What  they 
dimly  discerned  as  probable  is  now  the  central  fact  of  physical  science. 
From  him  are  derived  all  the  forces  of  nature  which  have  been  yoked 
into  the  service  of  man.  All  animal  and  plant  life  draws  its  daily 
sustenance  from  the  -warmth  and  light  of  the  sun,  and  it  is  but  his 
transmuted  energy  we  expend,  when,  with  muscle  of  man  or  horse,  we 
load  our  truck  or  roll  it  along  the  highway.  Do  we  irrigate  the  soil 
from  the  pumps  of  a  myriad  windmills  ?  His  rays,  on  plains  far  inland, 
supply  the  energy  for  the  breeze  which  turns  their  vanes  ! 

Does  a  lumbering  wheel  drive  a  dozen  stamps  and  a  primitive 
arastra  in  some  Mexican  canyon  ?  Do  mighty  turbines  whirl  a  million 
flying  spindles  and  shake  thousands  of  clattering  looms  on  the  banks 
of  some  New  England  stream  ?  From  the  bosom  of  the  ocean  and  the 
swamps  of  the  tropics,  Helios  lifted  those  vapory  Titans  whose  lifeblood 
courses  in  the  mountain  torrent  and  the  river  of  the  plain  ! 


Do  a  hundred  cars  rattle  up  the  steep  streets  or  the  smiling  city 
by  the  Golden  Gate  ?  Are  massive  ingots  of  steel  forged  to  shape 
and  size  by  the  giant  hammers  of  Bethlehem  ?  The  fuel  which 
gives  them  motion  was  stored  for  us,  ages  before  man  was  evolved, 
by  the  rays  which  flash  from  his  chariot  wheels!  "The  heat  now 
radiating  from  our  fire  places  has  at  some  time  previously  been  trans- 
mitted to  the  earth  from  the  sun.  If  it  be  wood  that  we  are  burning, 
then  we  are  using  the  sunbeams  that  have  shone  on  the  earth  within 
a  few  decades.  If  it  be  coal,  then  we  are  transforming  to  heat  the 
solar  energy  which  arrived  at  the  earth  millions  of  years  ago." 

Professor  Langley  remarks  that  "the  great  coal  fields  of  Pennsyl- 
vania contain  enough  of  the  precious  mineral  to  supply  the  wants  of 
the  United  States  for  a  thousand  years.  If  all  that  tremendous 
accumulation  of  fuel  were  to  be  extracted  and  burned  in  one  vast 
conflagration,  the  total  quantity  of  heat  that  would  be  produced  would, 
no  doubt,  be  stupendous,  and  yet,"  says  this  authority,  who  has  taught 
us  so  much  about  the  sun,  "all  the  heat  developed  by  that  terrific 
coal  fire  would  not  be  equal  to  that  which  the  sun  pours  forth  in 
the  thousandth  part  of  each  single  second." 

The  almost  limitless  stores  of  petroleum  which  are  found  in 
America  and  in  Asia,  and  the  smaller,  though  still  vast  supplies  of 
natural  gas  which  some  favored  localities  are  now  exploiting,  represent 
but  so  much  sun-energy  transmuted  through  forests  of  prehistoric 
vegetation. 

Another  authority  tells  us  that  the  total  amount  of  living  force 
"which  the  sun  pours  out  yearly  upon  every  acre  of  the  earth's 
surface,  chiefly  in  the  form  of  heat  is  800,000  horse-power."  And 
he  estimates  that  a  flourishing  crop  utilizes  only  T\  of  1  per  cent  of 
this  power. 

Remembering,  then,  that  this  sun-energy  reaches  us  only  one-half 
of  each  day,  we  may,  whenever  we  learn  how,  pick  up  on  every  acre 
an  average  of  175  horse-power  during  each  hour  of  daylight,  as  a 
surplus  which  nature  does  not  require  for  her  work  of  food  production. 

Attempts  to  utilize  this  daily  waste  have  been  made,  and  future 
inventors  may  fire  their  boilers  directly  with  the  radiant  heat  of  the 
sun.  But  whether  we  depend  on  what  he  garnered  for  us  ages  ago, 
or  quite  recently,  or  on  the  stores  he  will  lavish  on  us  in  the  future, 
it  is  clear  that  man's  continued  existence  on  earth  is  directly  dependent 
on  Helios. 

In  olden  times  the  various  trades  or  guilds  chose  as  their  patron 
saint  some  prominent  person  who  was  thought  to  have  embodied  in 
his  life-work  the  special  means  and  methods  of  their  craft.  By  that 


token  we  claim  Helios  as  our  own.  He  has  always  carried  the  record 
for  evaporative  efficiency.  He '  provides  both  the  fuel  and  the  water 
for  our  boilers.  He  teaches  us  perfect  circulation,  upward  as  mingled 
vapor  and  water  by  the  action  of  heat,  and  down  again  by  gravity 
as  rain  and  river  in  solid  water.  It  is  therefore  fit  that  the  boiler  in 
which  this  perfect  and  unobstructed  circulation  is  made  the  leading 
feature  of  construction  should  have  HELIOS  as  its  emblem ! 


In  the  following  pages  we  give  some  account  of  the  fuels  used 
in  the  practical  arts,  of  the  water  which  becomes  the  vehicle  for 
transmitting  their  energy  into  mechanical  power,  and  of  the  limitations 
imposed  by  their  varying  conditions.  These  must  all  be  taken  into 
account  in  estimating  how  much  we  may  expect  of  certain  combina- 
tions of  machinery.  Much  of  the  text  and  many  of  the  tables  are 
taken  from  Mr.  David  Kinnear  Clark's  admirable  book  on  the  steam 
engine,  for  which  his  consent  and  that  of  his  publishers,  Messrs. 
Blackie  &  Son,  was  courteously  given.  We  also,  by  permission, 
quote  freely  from  such  authorities  as  Mr.  Emerson  McMiliin,  Prof.  Wm. 
B.  Potter,  Prof.  R.  H.  Thurston,  Mr.  J.  M.  Whitham,  Prof.  D.  S. 
Jacobus,  Prof.  Ordway  and  others.  Thanks  are  also  due  for  valuable 
matter  to  Messrs.  Henry  R.  Worthington,  The  B.  F.  Sturtevant  Co., 
Mr.  Alfred  R.  Wolff,  Mr.  C.  W.  Owston  and  Messrs.  Hunt  &  Clapp. 
In  most  instances  we  indicate  the  scource  by  initials. 

We  trust  that  the  tables  and  data  may  be  found  convenient  for 
ready  reference  alike  by  professional  men,  by  manufacturers,  and  by 
that  growing  class  of  practical  steam  engineers  who  realize  that  true 
theory,  consonant  with  collective  experience,  is  within  the  reach  of 
every  thoughtful  man  who  pulls  the  throttle. 

E.    I).    M. 


—  3  — 


HEAT. 

Heat  is  the  form  in  which  we  receive  most  of  the  sun-energy.  In  the 
various  fuels  it  exists  in  a  potential  form  requiring  combustion,  i.  e.,  combi- 
nation of  the  active  elements  of  the  fuel  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  to 
reappear  in  its  active  form. 

"HEAT  AS  A  FORM  OF  ENERGY  is  subject  to  the  general  laws  which  gov- 
ern every  form  of  energy  and  control  all  matter  in  motion,  whether  that 
motion  be  molecular  or  the  movement  of  masses. 

"That  heat  is  the  motion  of  the  molecules  of  bodies  was  first  shown  by 
experiment  by  Benjamin  Thompson,  Count  Rumford,  then  in  the  service  of 
the  Bavarian  Government,  who  in  1798  presented  a  paper  to  the  Royal 
Society  of  Great  Britain,  describing  his  work,  and  reciting  the  results  and 
his  conclusion  that  heat  is  not  substance,  but  a  form  of  energy. 

"This  paper  is  of  very  great  historical  interest,  as  the  now  accepted 
doctrine  of  the  persistence  of  energy  is  a  generalization  which  arose  out  of  a 
series  of  investigations,  the  most  important  of  which  are  those  which  resulted 
in  the  determination  of  the  existence  of  a  definite  quantivalent  relation  be- 
tween these  two  forms  of  energy  and  a  measurement  of  its  value,  now  known 
as  the  'mechanical  equivalent  of  heat.'  The  experiment  consisted  in  the  de- 
termination of  the  quantity  of  heat  produced  by  the  boring  of  a  cannon  at  the 
arsenal  at  Munich." 

Work  in  the  same  direction  was  done  by  Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  Sadi 
Carnot,  Dr.  Mayer  and  Mr.  Colding.  But  Dr.  Joule,  from  1843  to  1849, 
made  a  series  of  experiments  by  various  methods,  the  results  of  which 
have  been  generally  accepted  as  satisfactory. 

Quantities  of  heat  are  measured,  in  English  units,  by  what  is  termed 
the  British  Thermal  Unit,  or  for  brevity,  B.  T.  U.  The  B.  T.  U.  is  the 
quantity  of  heat  required  to  raise  1  Ib.  of  pure  water  from  a  temperature  of 
62°  F.  to  63°  F.,  and  has  an  equivalent  in  mechanical  units  of  work.  This  is 
frequently  called  simply  a  Heat  Unit  or  designated  by  H.  U. 

The  mechanical  unit  of  work  is  the  foot-pound,  or  the  work  required 
to  raise  1  pound,  1  foot  high.  Joule's  experiments,  and  those  of  later  investi- 
gators, show  778  ft.  Ibs.  to  be  equivalent  to  one  B.  T.  U.  This  number, 
778,  is  known  as  Joule's  equivalent  or  symbolically  J.  33000  ft.  Ibs.  per 
min.  was  called  a  horse  power  by  Watt,  and  is  used  as  such  to-day,  it  being 
the  unit  for  large  powers. 

The  electrical  unit  of  power  is  the  Watt,  which  is  the  product  of  1  ampere 
Xlvolt.  746  Watts  are  equivalent  to  1H.  P.  or  33000  ft.  Ibs.  Hence  the  Watt 
has  an  equivalent  in  heat  units  also. 

Water  power  is  measured  in  terms  of  the  height  of  fall  or  velocity  of  flow, 
and  the  quantity  or  weight  of  water  passing,  the  result,  however,  being  in 
mechanical  units.  Hence  P=HxWxV,  where  P  =  ft.  Ibs.  per  sec.,  H  = 
height  of  fall  in  ft.,  W  =  weight  per  cu.  ft.  of  water,  V=  cubic  feet  of 
water  falling  per  second. 


Since  V2  =  2gH.  we  have  P  =f*X  V  X  W  where  P,  V,  andW,  are  the 
same  as  before  and  v  the  velocity  of  flow  of  the  water  in  ft.  per  sec.  and 
g=32.2. 

Owing  to  the  frictional  losses  and  the  inefficiency  of  all  kinds  of  water 
motors,  more  than  80  per  cent,  of  this  theoretical  power  is  rarely  ever  realized. 
The  best  types  of  water  motors  give  only  80  to  90  per  cent,  efficiency. 

The  following  table  shows  the  relation  of  the  various  units  : 

TABLE  No.   1. 
Equivalents  of   Work  and  Heat. 

B.  T.  U.  Ft.  Ibs.  Watts. 

1  =  778  17.59 

42.41  =  33000  746  1  H.  P. 

In  the  French  or  metric  system  of  units,  a  Heat  Unit  or  Calorie  is  the 
quantity  of  heat  required  to  raise  1  Kilogram  of  pure  water  1°  Cent,  at  or 
about  4°  C. 

The  following  tabular  statement  shows  the  relation  of  the  French  and 
English  units : 

TABLE  No.  2. 

French  and  English  Units  Compared. 

1  Calorie 3.968  B.  T.  U. 

0.252  Calorie 1  B.  T.  U. 

French  Mechanical  Equivalent,     )  3075  ^,    ^, 

425.0  Kilogram-metres,  >  ' 

107.7   Kilogram-metres J,  or  778  ft.  Ibs. 

For  convenience  in  translating  French  or  German  results  in  to  English 
or  American  we  have  the  following  compound  units  : 

TABLE  No.  3. 
Equivalent  Compound  Units. 

1  Calorie  per  square  metre 0.369  B.  T.  U.  p.  square  ft, 

1  B.  T.  U.  or  1  H.  U.  p.  square  ft 2.713  Cal.  p.  square  metre. 

1  Calorie  p.  Kilogram 1.800  H.  U.  per  pound. 

1  H.  U.  p.  pound 0.556  Cal.  p.  Kilogram. 

"HEAT  TRANSFORMATIONS  may  take  place,  through  the  action  of  physi- 
cal and  chemical  forces,  into  any  other  known  form  of  energy,  and  another 
form  of  energy  may  be  transmuted  into  heat.  Nearly  all  physical  pheno- 
mena, in  fact,  involve  heat-transformation  in  one  form  or  another,  and  in  a 
greater  or  less  degree,  under  the  laws  of  energetics.  According  to  the  first 
of  those  laws,  such  changes  must  always  occur  by  a  definite  quantivalence, 
and  when  heat  disappears  in  known  quantity  it  is  always  certain  that 
energy  of  calculable  amount  will  appear  as  its  equivalent ;  the  reverse  is  as 
invariably  the  case  when  heat  is  produced  ;  it  always  represents  and  meas- 
ures an  equivalent  amount  of  mechanical,  electrical,  chemical,  or  other 
energy. 


"Heat  and  Mechanical  Energy  are  thus  evidently  subject  to  the  general 
laws  of  transformation  of  energy,  and  the  transmutation  of  the  one  into  the 
other  must  always  be  capable  of  treatment  mathematically.  The  relations 
of  these  two  forms  of  energy  are  taken  as  the  subject  of  a  division  of  ener- 
getics known  as  the  science  of  thermodynamics,  and  a  vast  amount  of 
study  and  research  has  been  given  by  the  ablest  mathematical  physicists  of 
modern  times  to  the  investigation  of  its  laws  and  their  applications,  and  to 
the  building  up  of  that  science. 

"The  conversion  of  water  into  steam  in  the  steam  boiler  and  the  utiliza- 
tion of  the  heat-energy  thus  made  available,  or  in  heated  air  and  other 
gases,  in  steam  or  other  heat-engines,  constitute  at  once  the  most  familiar 
and  the  most  important  of  known  illustrations  of  thermodynamic  phenomena 
and  their  useful  application.  The  process  of  making  steam  is  one  of  pro- 
duction of  heat  by  transformation  from  the  potential  form  of  energy  through 
the  action  of  chemical  forces,  and  its  storage  in  sensible  form  for  later  use 
in  the  steam-engine,  where  it  is  changed  into  equivalent  mechanical  energy. 
The  pure  science  of  the  steam-engine  is  thus  the  science  of  thermodynamics, 
the  first  applications  of  which  are  made  in  the  operations  carried  on  in  the 
steam-boiler. 

"SENSIBLE  AND  LATENT  HEATS  must  be  carefully  distinguished  in  study- 
ing the  action  of  heat  on  matter.  The  term  'Sensible  Heat'  scarcely  re- 
quires definition  ;  but  it  may  be  said  that  sensible  and  latent  heats  represent 
latent  and  sensible  work ;  that  the  former  is  actual,  kinetic,  heat-energy, 
capable  of  transformation  into  mechanical  energy,  or  vis  viva  of  masses, 
and  into  mechanical  work  ;  while  the  latter  form  is  not  heat,  but  is  the 
equivalent  of  heat  transformed  to  produce  a  visible  effect  in  the  performance 
of  molecular,  or  internal  as  well  as  external,  work,  and  visible  alteration  of 
volume  and  other  physical  conditions. 

"It  is  seen  that  heat  may  become  'latent'  through  any  transformation 
which  results  in  a  definite  and  defined  physical  change,  produced  by  expan- 
sion of  any  substance  in  consequence  of  such  transmutation  into  internal  and 
external  work  ;  whether  it  be  simple  increase  of  volume  or  such  increase 
with  change  of  physical  state. 

"THE  LATENT  HEAT  OF  EXPANSION  is  a  name  for  that  heat  which  is 
demanded  to  produce  an  increase  of  volume,  as  distinguished  from  that  un- 
transformed  heat  which  is  absorbed  by  the  substance  to  produce  elevation  of 
temperature.  The  latent  heat  of  expansion  may,  by  its  absorption  and 
transformation,  and  the  resulting  performance  of  internal  and  external  work, 
cause  no  other  effect  than  change  of  volume,  as  e.  g.,  when  air  is  heated  , 
or  it  may  at  the  same  time  produce  an  alteration  of  the  solid  to  the  fluid,  or 
of  the  liquid  to  the  vaporous  state,  as  in  the  melting  of  ice  or  the  boiling  of 
water,  in  which  latter  cases,  as  it  happens,  no  elevation  of  temperature 
occurs,  all  heat  received  being  at  once  transformed.  In  the  expansion  of 
air,  and  in  other  cases  in  which  no  such  change  of  state  occurs,  a  part  of 
the  heat  absorbed  remains  unchanged,  producing  elevation  of  temperature  ; 
while  another  part  is  transformed  into  latent  heat  of  expansion." 

R.  H.T. 


We   give   below  tables   of  the   boiling  and   melting  points  of  various 
substances,  and   the   linear   expansion   of   various   solids. 

TABLE  No.  4. 
Boiling  Points  of  Various  Substances. 

At  Atmospheric   Pressure  at  Sea  Level. 


SUBSTANCE. 

Degrees 
Fahr. 

SUBSTANCE. 

Degrees 
Fahr. 

Alcohol 

173 
140 

176 
325 
597 
648 
186 
248 
210 
316 

Sulphur 

570 

590 
240 
100 
315 
212 
213.2 
226 
150 

Ammonia 

Sulphuric  Acid,  s.  g.  1.848-- 
Sulphuric  Acid    s   2    1  3 

Benzine 

Coal  Tar 

r                                           *               o 

Sulphuric  Ether 

Linseed    Oil 

Turpentine 

Mercury 

Water 

Naptha 

Water,  Sea 

Nitric   Acid,  s. 
Nitric   Acid,  s. 
Petroleum  Rect 

2.  1.42  _ 

Water,  Saturated  Brine 

g.  1.5     -- 

Wood   Spirit      .  _ 

fied 

TABLE  No.  5. 


Melting   Points  of  Metals. 

From   D.  K.  C. 

Melting  Points  of  Various  Solids. 

From   D.  K.  C.  and   H. 

METAL. 

Degrees 
Fahr. 

SUBSTANCE. 

Degrees 
Fahr. 

Aluminum 

Full  Red 
Heat. 

1150 
507 

1690 
1996 
2156 

2282 
2012 
r!922 
1      to 

12012 
2912 
617 
—39 

1873 
r2372 

•{       to 

12552 
442 

773 

Carbonic    Acid 

—108 
2377 
32 
95 
45- 
112 
91 
606 
120 

r!09 
1    to 

1  120 
239 
92 
14 
142 
154 

Antimony 

Glass 

Bismuth 

Ice 

Bronze 

Lard 

Copper 

Nitre-Glycerine 

Gold,  Standard 

Phosphorus  _ 

Gold,    Pure                   _  _  __ 

i  Pitch 

Iron,    Cast,    Gray  .. 

Saltpetre 

Iron     Cast     White 

Spermaceti-   

Stearine 

Iron     Wrought 

Sulphur 

Lead 

Mercury 

Tallow 

Silver 

Turpentine  

Steel  

Wax,  Rough 

\A/a  v     RlpurhpH 

Tin 

Zinc 

Melting   Points   of 

From   D. 

Fusible 

K.  C. 

Plugs. 

Softens  at 

Melts  at 

Softens  at 

Melts  at 

2   Tin,    2    Lead 

365 
372 

372 
383 

2 
2 

Tin, 
Tin, 

7 
8 

Lead 

377i 

388 
408 

2   Tin     6   Lead 

Lead 

TABLE  No.  6. 

Expansion  of  Solids  at  Ordinary  Temperatures. 

D.  K.  c. 


SUBSTANCE. 

Coefficient 
for 
1°  Fahr. 

Total  Expansion  between  32°  Fahr.  and  212°  Fahr. 

Coefficient. 

In  Length  of  10  Feet. 

Decimal. 

Fraction. 

Aluminum  (Cast) 

.00001234 
.00000627 
.00000957 
.00001052 
.00001040 
.00000306 
.00000494 
.00000256 
.00000975 
.00000797 
.00000594 
.00000656 
.00000887 
.00000451 
.00000492 
.00000498 
.00000499 
.00000397 
.00000438 
.00000498 
.00000786 
.00000648 
.00000636 
.00000556 
.OOC00626 
.00001571 
.00000363 
.00000663 
.00009984 
.00000695 
.00000922 
.00000479 
.00001079 
.00000577 
.00000636 
.00000689 
.00000652 
.00001163 
.00000276 
.00001407 
.00001496 

.002221 
.001129 
.001723 
.001894 
.001872 
.000550 
.000890 
.000460 
.001755 
.001435 
.001070 
.001180 
.001596 
.000812 
.000886 
.000896 
.000897 
.000714 
.000789 
.000897 
.001415 
.001166 
.001145 
.001001 
.001126 
.002828 
.000654 
.001193 
.017971 
.001251 
.001660 
.000863 
.001943 
.001038 
.001144 
.001240 
.001174 
.002094 
.000496 
.002532 
.002692 

V« 

V«M 

y«r 

Vw 
Vw 

Yl818 

Yim 

]/2l74 

V«B 
V694 

Vw 

Vwr 

V625 
Vl234 
1/1130 

Vim 

Vim 

Vl400 
Vl266 

VHII 
VTO; 

Y866 
V«73 

Viooo 
V«w 
l/sss 
Vir,30 

V838 

'/• 

YSOO 

V«>2 

V"«» 

V«M 

1/967 
V»4 

YSOC 

Y«52 

V-77 

Yaoie 

YSB 
J/372 

Feet. 
.02221 

.01129 
.01723 
.01894 
.01872 
.00550 
.00890 
.00460 
.01755 
.01435 
.01070 
.01180 
.01596 
.00812 
.00886 
.00896 
.00897 
.00714 
.00789 
.00897 
.01415 
.01166 
.01145 
.01001 
.01126 
.02828 
.00654 
.01193 
.17971 
.01251 
.01660 
.00863 
.01943 
.01038 
.01144 
.01240 
.01174 
.02094 
.00496 
.02532 
.02692 

Inches. 
.2664 

.1336 
.2067 
.2273 
.2246 
.0660 
.1068 
.0552 
.2106 
.1722 
.1284 
.1416 
.1915 
.0974 
.1063 
.1075 
.1076 
.0857 
.0947 
.1076 
.1698 
.1399 
.1374 
.1201 
.1351 
.3394 
.0785 
.1432 
2.1565 
.1501 
.1992 
.1036 
.2334 
.1246 
.1373 
.1488 
.1409 
.2513 
.0595 
.3038 
.3230 

Antimony   (Crystallized)  -- 

Brass  (Cast) 

Brass  (English  Plate) 

Brass  (Sheet) 

Brick  (Best  Stock)  

Brick  in  Cement  Mortar  (Headers) 
Brick  in  Cement  Mortar(Stretchers) 
Bronze 

Cement  (Roman    Dry) 

Cement  (Portland,  Neat)      

Cement  (Portland,  with  Sand)--- 
Copper        -    -  

Glass  (Flint) 

Glass  (White,  Free  from  Lead)-- 
Glass  (Blown) 

Glass  (Thermometer) 

Glass  (Hard)  ---    

Granite  (Gray,  Dry) 

Granite  (Red,  Dry)  — 

Gold  (Pure) 

Iron  (Wrought)  -  --  

Iron  (Swedish)    - 

Iron  (Cast)  

Iron  (Soft) 

Lead  --        -  -     _  _  _ 

Marble  (Ordinary    Dry) 

Marble  (Ordinary,  Moist)-  

Mercurv  (Cubic  Expansion) 

Nickel-    

Plaster  (White)  

Platinum  

Silver  (Pure) 

Slate       

Steel  (Cast) 

Steel  (Tempered) 

Stone  (Sand    Dry)  -  

Tin 

Wood  (Pine) 

Zinc 

Zinc  8   Tin  1  -     --— 

—  10  — 


The  Specific  Heat  of  a  body  signifies  its  capacity  for  heat  or  the  quan- 
tity of  heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  the  body  one  degree 
Fahrenheit,  compared  with  that  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  an 
equal  weight  of  water  one  degree. 

TABLE  NO.  7. 

Specific  Heats. 

D.  K.  C. 


SUBSTANCE. 

SPECIFIC  HEAT. 

SUBSTANCE. 

SPECIFIC  HEAT. 

Ice                        

0.504 

Anthracite  

0.2017 

Water  at  32°  F 

1.000 

Oak  Wood       

0.570 

Gaseous  Steam 

0.475 

Fir  Wood  

0.650 

Saturated  Steam  
Mercury      

0.305 
0.0333 

Oxygen     (Equal 
Weights;     Con- 

Sulphuric  Ether, 
Density   .715  
Alcohol 

0.5200 

0.6588 

stant  Volume)  
Air    (  at    Constant 
Pressure  )  

0.1559 
0.2377 

Lead  

0.0314 

Air  (Equal  Weights 

Gold  

0.0324 

Constant  Vol.)  .. 

0.1688 

Tin                 

0.0566 

Nitrogen     (Equal 

Silver        

0.0570 

Wgts  ;   Constant 

Brass 

0.0939 

Volume)  

0.1740 

Copper  . 

0.0951 

Hydrogen    (Equal 

Zinc  

0.0956 

Wgts;   Constant 

Nickel 

0.1086 

Volume)  

2.4096 

Wrought  Iron 

0.1138  to  0.1255 

Carbonic  Oxide 

Steel       

0.1165  to  0.1185 

(Equal  Weights; 

Cast  Iron  

0.1298 

Constant  Vol.)  .. 

0.1768 

Brickwork  and  Ma- 
sonry 

0.200 

Carbonic   Acid 
(Equal  Weights; 

Coal  ... 

0.2411 

Constant  Vol.)  .. 

0.1714 

Boiler  Plant  of  Lannett  Cotton  Mills, 

WEST  POINT,  GA. 
900  H.  P.  Heine  Boilers. 


11  — 


COMBUSTION. 

Combustion  or  Burning  is  the  chemical  combination  of  the  constituents 
of  the  fuel,  mostly  carbon  and  hydrogen,  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air.  The 
nitrogen  remains  inert  and  causes  loss  of  useful  effect  to  the  extent  of  the 
heat  it  carries  off  through  the  chimney. 

The  hydrogen  combines  with  enough  oxygen  to  form  water  which 
passes  off  as  steam. 

The  carbon  combines  with  enough  oxygen  to  form  carbonic  acid  or  car- 
bon dioxide  gas  (perfect  combustion)  or  with  only  enough  to  form  carbonic 
oxide  or  carbon  monoxide  gas  (imperfect  combustion). 

The  following  table  gives  the  quantities  of  air,  the  heat  evolved  and  the 
resulting  temperature  from  the  combustion  of  constituent  parts  of  fuel,  under 
the  supposition  that  the  chemical  requirements  are  exactly  fulfilled ; 

TABLE  No.  8. 

Combustion  Data. 

o.  H.  L. 


COMBUSTIBLE. 

Atomic 
Weight. 

COMBUSTION  PRODUCT. 

Wgt.  of 
Oxygen 
per  Ibof 
Com- 
bustible 

Amount   of  air 
consumed  per  Ib. 
of  combustible. 

Calorific 
power.  Heat 
unitsp.lbot 
combus'ble 

Resulting 
temperat'e  of 
com  bustion. 
No  su  r  p  1  u  s 
air  assumed. 

(H)  =  l 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

i  ...  ft. 

62°    F. 

B.T.U.    Deg.  Fahr. 

Oxygen    (O)  
Hydrogen  (H)-- 
Carbon  (C) 

16 

12 
12 

28 
16 

2^ 
32 

Water   (htaO) 

8.0 
1.33 
2.66 

0.57 
4.00 

3.43 
1.00 

34.8 
5.8 
11.6 

2.48 
17.4 

15.0 
4.35 

457 

76 
152 

33 

229 

196 

57 

62032 
4452 
14500 

4325 
26383 

21290 
4032 

5898 
2358 
4939 

5508 
9624 

9775 
3637 

Carbonic  oxide  (CO) 
Carbon  dioxide  (CO?) 

Carbon  dioxide  - 

Carbon  (C) 

Carbonic     oxide 
(CO)  - 

Marsh  gas  (C  H-il 
(light  hydrocar'n) 
Oletiantgas(C2H4) 
(heavy  hydrocar- 
bon) 

C  O"  and  H->  O 

CO"  and  H»O 

Sulphur  (S)  

SO2  

Conditions  for  the  Complete  Combustion  of  Fuel  in  Furnaces. 

For  insuring  completeness  of  combustion,  the  first  condition  is  a  sufficient 
supply  of  air  ;  the  next  is  that  the  air  and  the  fuel,  solid  and  gaseous,  should 
be  thoroughly  mixed ;  and  the  third  is  that  the  elements — air  and  combusti- 
ble gases — should  be  brought  together  and  maintained  at  a  sufficiently  high 
temperature.  The  hotter  the  elements  the  greater  is  the  facility  for  good 
combustion. 

RULE  1.  To  find  the  quantity  of  air  at  &2°  F. ,  under  one  atmosphere, 
chemically  consumed  in  the  complete  combustion  of  one  pound  of  fuel  of  a  given 
composition.  Let  the  constituent  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen  be  expressed 
as  percentages  of  the  total  weight  of  the  fuel.  To  the  carbon  add  three 
times  the  hydrogen,  and  from  the  sum  deduct  four-tenths  of  the  oxygen. 
Multiply  the  remainder  by  1.52.  The  product  is  the  quantity  of  air  at  62°  F. 
in  cubic  feet. 

Formula:— A  =  1.52  (C  f  3  H  —  .40)     (1) 


—  13  — 


To  find  the  weight  of  the  air  chemically  consumed,  divide  the  volume 
found  as  above  by  13.14  ;  the  quotient  is  the  weight  of  the  air  in  pounds. 

RULE  2.  To  find  the  total  weight  of  the  gaseous  products  of  the  complete 
combustion  of  one  pound  of  a  fuel,  multiply  the  percentage  of  constitutent 
carbon  in  the  fuel  by  0.126,  and  that  of  hydrogen  by  0.358.  The  sum  of 
these  products  is  the  total  weight  of  the  gases  in  pounds. 

Formula  :— W  =  0.126  C  +  0.358  H     (2) 

RULE  3.  To  find  the  total  volume,  at  62°  F. ,  of  the  gaseous  products  of 
the  complete  combustion  of  one  pound  of  fuel ,  multiply  the  constituent  percent- 
age of  carbon  in  the  fuel  by  1.52,  and  that  of  hydrogen  by  5.52.  The  sum 
of  these  products  is  the  total  volume  in  cubic  feet. 

Formula:— V  ==  1.52  C  +  5.52   H     (3) 

The  corresponding  volume  of  the  gases  at  other  temperatures  is  given 
by  the  formula — 

V=V'S11    (4) 

In  which  V  is  the  volume  at  62°  F.,  t'  is  the  other  temperature  and  V  the 
corresponding  volume.  That  is  to  say,  the  volume  at  any  other  temperature 
t'  is  found  by  multiplying  the  volume  at  62°  by  (t'  plus  461),  and  dividing 
by  523. 

RULE  4.  To  find  approximately  the  total  heating  power  of  one  pound  of 
a  combristible ,  of  which  the  percentages  of  the  constituent  carbon  and  hydrogen 
are  given.  To  the  carbon  add  4.28  times  the  hydrogen,  and  multiply  the 
sum  by  145.  The  product  is  the  heating  power  in  British  units. 

Formula  :— h  ==  145  (C  -J-  4.28  H)     (5) 

RULE  5.  To  find  the  total  evaporative  power,  #/ 212° /\ ,  of  one  pound 
of  combustible ,  of  which  the  percentages  of  the  constituent  carbon  and  hydro- 
gen are  given.  To  the  carbon  add  4.28  times  the  hydrogen,  and.  multiply 
the  sum  by  0.13  when  the  water  is  supplied  at  62°  F.,  or  by  0.15  when  the 
water  is  supplied  at  212°  F.  The  product  is  the  total  evaporative  power  of 
one  pound  of  the  combustible,  in  pounds  of  water  evaporated  at  212°  F. 

Formula  :— (Water  supplied  at  212°),  E  =  0.15  (C  +  4.28  H)      (6) 

In  most  cases  an  additional  or  surplus  quantity  of  air  is  required  to 
facilitate  the  completion  of  the  combustion  of  fuel  beyond  that  which  is 
chemically  consumed  ;  but  the  proportion  of  surplus  air  required  appears  to 
diminish  as  the  rate  of  combustion  and  the  general  temperature  in  the  furnace 
are  increased.  For  instance,  for  the  most  perfectly  managed  furnaces  of 
boilers  in  Cornwall,  Mr.  Hunt  found  that  there  was  as  much  free  oxygen  in 
the  gaseous  products  in  the  chimney  as  was  chemically  consumed  in  combus- 
tion. Again,  Messrs.  Delabeche  and  Playfair  found  that  the  surplus  oxygen 
varied  from  a  fourth  to  a  half ;  and  from  the  statements  of  Mr.  Longridge 
with  regard  to  experimental  trials  at  Newcastle  with  Hartley  coal,  it  appears 
that  the  surplus  air  amounted  to  only  9  per  cent.  These  proportional  surplus 


quantities,  observed  under  very  different  circumstances,  are  found  to  diminish 
as  the  rates  of  combustion  increase*  thus  : 

Coal  Consumed  per  Square  Foot 

of  Grate  per  Hour.  Surplus  Air. 

Cornish   Boilers 2  Ibs.  to    4  Ibs 100  per  cent. 

Delabeche  and   Playfair--10  Ibs.  to  16  Ibs  --       -  25  to  50  per  cent. 

Longridge 20  Ibs.  and  upwards--     9%  per  cent. 

These  results  are  roughly  indicative  of  the  law  of  the  excess  of  air.  In 
the  instance  of  Hartley  coal,  above  quoted,  on  the  authority  of  Mr.  Longridge, 
the  composition  of  the  sample  under  trial  was  as  follows: 

Carbon 81.5  per  cent. 

Hydrogen ---  5.2  per  cent. 

Nitrogen 1.5  per  cent. 

Oxygen 6.2  per  cent. 

Sulphur -  1-1  per  cent. 

Ash -  4.5  per  cent. 

100.0 
The  quantity  of  air  chemically  consumed  in  the  combustion  of  one  pound 

of  this  fuel  by  formula  (1),  is  144  cubic  feet  at  62°.  The  actual  quantity  of 
air  that  was  admitted  below  and  about  the  fire  was,  according  to  Mr.  Long- 
ridge, 158  cubic  feet,  being  14  cubic  feet,  or  9f  per  cent,  in  excess,  when 
smoke  was  entirely  prevented.  He  mentions,  at  the  same  time,  that  with  the 
ordinary  system  of  stoking,  when  dense  smoke  was  given  off,  the  quantity 
of  air  that  passed  through  the  furnace,  exclusively  through  the  grate,  was 
only  at  the  rate  of  100  cubic  feet  per  pound  of  coal.  This  was  little  more 
than  equal  to  what  was  sufficient  to  burn  the  fixed  portion  of  the  coal. 

Below  we  give  a  table  giving  the  conditions  and  results  of  perfect  com- 
bustion for  the  fuels  in  common  use. 

As  this  table  is  from  English  sources  the  heat  of  combustion  and  equiva- 
lent evaporative  power  of  the  coal  is  much  higher  than  our  American  coals 
warrant,  as  the  tables  of  American  coals,  p.  20  will  show.  In  applying  the 
table  to  practical  cases,  the  surplus  air  which  reduces  the  efficiency  must 
be  taken  into  account.  It  is  good  practice  to  get  in  actual  evaporation  60  per 
cent,  of  the  theoretical  evaporative  power  for  the  poorer,  and  70  per  cent. 

for  the  better  kinds  of  coal : 

TABLE  No.  9. 

Total  Heat  Evolved  by  Various  Fuels  and  their  Equivalent 

Evaporative  Power,  with  the  Weight  of  Oxygen  and 

Volume  of  Air  Chemically  Consumed. 

D.  K.  C. 


FUEL, 

Weight  of 
Oxygen  Con- 
sumed per  Ib. 
of  Fuel. 

Quantity  of  Air 
Consumed  per  Ib. 
of  Fuel. 

Total  Heat  of 
Combustion 
of  1  Ib.  of  Fuel. 

Equivalent 
Evaporative 
Power  of  1  Ib.  of 
Fuel  from  and 
at  212°. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Cu.  ft.  at  62°. 

B.  T.  U. 

Lbs. 

Hydrogen 

8.0 
2.66 

1.00 
2.45 
2.49 
2.04 
2.74 
1.40 
1.05 
0.98 
3.29 
4.12 

34.8 
11.6 

4.35 

10.7 
10.81 
8.85 
11.85 
6.09 
4.57 
4.26 
14.33 
17.93 

457 

152 

57 
140 
142 
116 
156 
80 
60 
56 
188 
235 

62000 
14500 

4000 
14700 
13548 
13108 
17040 
10974 
7951 
8144 
20411 
27531 

62.40 
15.0 

4.17 
15.22 
14.02 
13.57 
17.64 
11.36 
8.20 
8.43 
21.13 
28.50 

Parhnn          /     Making  Car- 
^arDon---\       bonicAcid. 

Sulphur  -  - 

Coal,  average  dessicated- 
Coke,      " 
Lignite,  perfect  - 

Asphalt  

Wood,  dessicated 

"    25  per  cent,  moisture 
Straw,  15K  per  ct.  moist. 
Petroleum 

Petroleum  Oils      _____ 

—  15  — 


For  average  American  coals  the  following  table  gives  good  approximate 
results  for  the  temperature  and  volume  of  gases,  in  the  furnace,  under  the 
varying  conditions  of  practice.  In  applying  it  the  actual  quantities  of  air 
used  should  be  measured  by  an  anemometer : 

TABLE  No.  10. 

Temperature  of  Combustion  and  Volumes  of  Products. 

j.  M.  w. 


Supply  of  Air  in  Ibs.  per  Ib.  of  Fuel. 

TEMPERATURE  OP 
GAS. 

12  Ibs. 

18  Ibs. 

24  Ibs. 

FAHRENHEIT. 

Volume  of  Air  or  Gases  in  Cubic  Feet  at  Each  Temperature. 

32 

150 

225 

300 

68 

161 

241 

322 

104 

172 

258 

344 

212 

205 

307 

409 

392 

259 

389 

519 

572 

314 

471 

628 

752 

369 

553 

738 

1112 

479 

718 

957 

1472 

588 

882 

1176 

1832 

697 

1046 

1395 

2500 

906 

1359 

1812 

3275 

1136 

1704 

4640 

1551 

Brown  Palace  Hotel,  Denver,  Colo. 
Heat  and  Power  from  520  H.  P.  of  Heine  Boilers. 


-16  — 


COAL. 

Coal  is  by  far  the  most  important  fuel  in  use.  The  cases  where  wood 
is  used  are  exceptional,  and  becoming  more  so  as  population  increases  and 
timber  becomes  scarce  and  more  in  demand  for  structural  purposes.  Very 
favorable  local  conditions  are  necessary  before  fuel  oils  or  gases  can  compete 
with  coal.  It  is  interesting  to  trace  the  gradual  increase  in  the  demand  for 
coal. 

In  England  coal  was  first  used  in  the  twelfth  century,  and  was  then  and 
long  after  known  as  sea-coal  to  distinguish  it  from  char-coal.  This  name 
was  given  it  from  the  fact  that  it  was  first  believed  to  be  a  marine  product, 
being  gathered  among  the  seaweed  and  other  wreckage  cast  up  by  the  waves 
on  Northumbrian  beaches.  Later  on  the  name  was  given  to  coal  brought 
-from  over  the  sea. 

About  the  year  1200  the  English  began  to  dig  coal  systematically  for  the 
use  of  their  smiths  and  lime  burners.  In  1281  the  entire  coal  trade  of  New- 
castle on  Tyne  amounted  to  about  $500  a  year.  In  1307  the  brewers, 
dyers,  etc.,  of  London  had  so  generally  adopted  coal  in  their  works  that  a 
•commission  to  abate  the  smoke  nuisance  was  instituted.  Its  powers  and 
methods  were  far  less  restricted  than  those  of  similar  commissions  now  being 
very  generally  instituted  in  American  cities. 

In  dwellings  coal  was  not  used  till  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century, 
since  chimneys  had  first  to  be  invented,  but  early  in  the  fifteenth  century  we 
find  Falstaff  sitting  "at  the  round  table,  by  a  sea-coal  fire." 

In  1577  a  writer  says  in  regard  to  the  coal  mines,  "Theyr  greatest  trade 
'beginneth  now  to  grow  from  the  forge  into  the  kitchin  and  hall."  When 
the  Stuarts  came  to  the  English  throne  they  made  the  use  of  coal  fashiona- 
ble, so  that  in  1612  a  writer  states  that  it  had  become  "the  generate  fuell  of 
this  Britaine  Island."  "Coking"  coal  (originally  "cooking"  it)  came  in 
vogue  about  1640,  and  in  1656  an  English  knight  anticipated  the  St.  Louis 
Smoke  Committee  of  1892  in  attempting  to  introduce  coke  for  domestic  pur- 
poses. But  as  late  as  1686  sea-coal  and  pit-coal  were  considered  "not  use- 
ful to  metals,"  and  char-coal  still  held  the  field  in  smelting  furnaces.  But 
during  the  next  fifty  years,  lead,  tin  and  finally  iron  furnaces  began  to  use 
coal.  Soon  after  the  gradual  development  of  steam  power  began.  In  1800 
the  total  production  of  coal  in  Great  Britain  had  reached  ten  million  tons.  In 
1891  the  records  show  185,479,126  tons  of  which  about  1-6  was  exported, 
1-6  was  for  domestic  use,  and  the  other  2-3  was  consumed  in  the  arts  and 
manufactures. 

In  the  United  States  up  to  1860  the  use  of  wood  as  fuel,  for  dwellings, 
for  factories,  steamboats  and  locomotives  was  quite  general,  except  in  the 
.anthracite  coal  districts.  But  since  then  the  use  of  bituminous  coal  has  in- 
creased rapidly  and  steadily  for  all  purposes. 

-17  — 


The  following  table  gives  the  amounts  of   coal  produced  during  the  last 

twelve  years  : 

TABLE  No.  n. 

Amount  of  Coal,  in  Tons  of  2000  Ibs., Mined  in  the  United  States 

Since  1880. 


YEAR. 

ANTHRACITE. 

ALL  OTHERS. 

TOTAL. 

1880 

26,249,711 

47,398,286 

73,647,997 

1881 

31,920,018 

56,327,412 

88,247,430 

1882 

32,614,507 

65,588,241 

98,202,748 

1883 

35,418,353 

72,663,765 

108,082,118 

1884 

36,558,478 

73,836,730 

110,395,208 

1885 

38,335,973 

74,273,838 

112,609,811 

1886 

39,035,446 

75,624,846 

114,66«,292 

1887 

42,088,196 

88,887,109 

130,975,305 

1888 

46,619,564 

98,850,642 

145,470,206 

1889 

39,656,635 

98,460,065 

138,116,702 

1890 

46,468,640 

109,604,971 

156,073,611 

1891 

50,665,431 

118,878,517 

169,543,948 

1892 

49,735,744 

122,033,611 

171,769,355 

1893 

47,354,563 

128,823,364 

176,177,927 

1894 

52,010,433 

117,950,348 

169,960,781 

1895 

51,785,122 

135,118,193 

186,903,315 

1896 

48,010,616 

137,640,276 

185,650,892 

In  the  United  States  a  long  ton  of  coal  is  2240  Ibs. 
In  the  United  States  a  short  ton  of  coal  is  2000  Ibs. 
In  Illinois,  Kentucky  and  Missouri  80  Ibs.  of   bituminous  coal  make  a 
bushel. 

In  Pennsylvania,  76  Ibs.  of  bituminous  coal  make  a  bushel. 

In  Indiana  70  Ibs.  of  bituminous  coal  make  a  bushel. 

A  cubic  foot  of  solid  anthracite  coal  weighs  93.5  Ibs. 

Forty-two  cubic  feet  of  prepared  anthracite  coal  weigh  one  long  ton. 


COAL  may  be  arranged  in  five  classes  : 

1st.     Anthracite,  or  blind  coal,  consisting  almost  entirely  of  free  carbon. 
2d.     Dry  bituminous  coal,  having  from  70  to  80  per  cent,  of  carbon. 
Bituminous  caking  coal,  having  from  50  to  60  per  cent,  of  carbon. 
Long  flaming   or   cannel  coal,  having  from  70  to  85  per  cent,  of 


Lignite,  or  brown   coal,  containing  from  56  to  76  per   cent,  of 


3d. 

4th 
carbon. 

5th 
carbon. 

In  the  United  States  the  anthracites  are  found  mainly  in  the  eastern 
portion  of  the  Allegheny  Mountains  and  the  Rocky  Mountains  of  Colorado  ; 
the  dry  bituminous  coals  in  Maryland  and  Virginia  ;  the  caking  coals  in  the 
great  Mississippi  Valley ;  the  cannel  coals  in  Pennsylvania,  Indiana  and 
Missouri ;  the  lignites  in  Colorado,  Texas  and  Washington.  The  second  and 
third  classes  furnish  the  best  steam  coal. 

The  following  table,  compiled  from  a  number  of  analyses  of  coals 
bought  in  the  open  market  may  prove  of  value,  bearing  in  mind  what  we 
said  of  the  difference  between  theoretical  and  practical  heating  powers. 
(See  p.  15.) 

We  will  add  what  a  noted  German  engineer,  Mr.  F.  Bode,  says  on  this 
point:  "  The  calculation  of  the  calorific  value  of  a  given  coal  from  an  elementary 
analysis  is  unreliable,  and  often  gives  results  greatly  at  variance  with  an 
actual  ralorimetric  test. ' ' 

—  19  — 


TABLE  No.  12. 
Table  of  American  Coals. 

Heating   and    Evaporative    Power. 


COAL. 

Name  or  Locality. 

LI 

01 

ex  . 
.•o 

s§ 
H£ 

ad 

Theoretical 
Evap.  in  Ibs. 
water  from 
and  at  212". 

COAL. 

Name  or  Locality. 

a.  . 

.  T> 
S§ 
H| 

cd 

Theoretical 
Evap.  in  Ibs. 
water  from 
and  at  212°.  1 

ARKANSAS. 
Cos.1  Hill   Johnson  Co 

11812 
11757 
11906 
12537 

11466 
11529 
11781 
11200 
11481 
1  2383 
11498 
11407 
11337 
11700 
11400 
9848 
9035 
10143 
9401 
10710 
9675 
9804 
9739 
9954 
10269 
10332 
10576 
11868 
11718 
10395 
11340 
10080 
9261 
10294 
10647 
9765 
9828 
11403 
10584 
11245 
11255 
11260 
9450 
10626 

10407 

11088 
12789 
13287 
12800 

12.22 
12.16 
12.32 
12.97 

11.87 
11.93 
12.19 
11.60 
11.89 
12.71 
11.90 
11.81 
11.73 
12.12 
11.80 
10.19 
9.35 
10.50 
9.73 
11.08 
10.01 
10.14 
10.09 
10.30 
10.63 
10.69 
10.95 
12.28 
12.14 
10.76 
11.73 
10.44 
9.58 
10.65 
11.02 
10.10 
10.18 
11.80 
10.96 
11.63 
11.64 
11.65 
9.78 
11.00 

10.77 

11.47 
13.23 
13.75 
13.25 

IOWA. 
Milwaukee  Pea  

10240 
10690 
11370 
8702 

12689 
13345 

13700 
13400 
12800 

9890 
11832 
10880 
12656 
11436 
10466 
10956 
10448 
9414 

11756 

13309 
12343 
11600 

14000 
13104 
13035 
11739 
12981 
13563 
12936 
12600 
13480 
13287 
12909 
13222 
12278 
13305 
12600 
13ill 
12487 
12600 
13309 
13158 
17268 
16801 

10.60 
11.07 
11.77 
9.01 

13.13 
13.81 

14.18 
13.87 
13.25 

10.24 
12.24 
11.26 
13.82 
11.83 
10.83 
11.34 
10.81 
9.75 

12.17 

13.78 
12.77 
12.01 

14.49 
13.46 
13.49 
12.15 
13.44 
14.04 
13.39 
13.03 
13.95 
13.75 
13.36 
13.69 
12.71 
13.77 
13.04 
13.47 
12.92 
13.04 
13.77 
13.60 
17.88 
17.39 

Huntinsrton  Co 

Thornburgh  

Muchikinock  

Good  Cheer  

ILLINOIS. 
Big  Muddy,  Jackson  Co  

KENTUCKY. 
Kanawah  

Kanawah 

Big  Muddy,  Jackson  Co 

MARYLAND. 

George's  Creek  Cumberland  .... 
George's  Creek  Cumberland  .... 
George's  Creek  Cumberland  .... 

MISSOURI. 
Bevier  

Big  Muddy,  Jackson  Co    

Big  Muddy,  Jackson  Co  . 

Carterville 

Carterville  

Carterville 

Carterville  

Carterville  

Carterville 

Carterville 

Cannel  

Colchester 

Carter  

Colchester  Slack 

Elston  

Collinsville   Madison  Co 

Freeburg  

Dumferline  Slack 

Henry  

Duouoin   Jupiter 

Keene  

Glen  Carbon 

K.  T  

Glen  Carbon 

Lump  

Gillespie,  Macoupin  Co  

NEW  MEXICO. 
Coal 

Girard,  Macoupin  Co  . 

Girard,  Macoupin  Co  

Heitz  Bluff,  St.  Clair  Co 

OHIO. 

Heitz  Bluff,  St.  Clair  Co  

Hurricane  

Muddy  Valley  

Oakland,  St.  Clair  Co  

Jackson  Co 

Paradise  

PENNSYLVANIA. 
Clearfield  

St.  Bernard.. 

St.  Clair  

Qf    ploir 

St    Plflir 

Pittsburgh  

Pittsburgh  Gas  

St     Inhn     Pprr\7  f^n 

Pittsburgh  Slack  

Streator,  LaSalle  Co  . 

Reynoldsville 

Wilkesbarre 

Trenton,  Clinton  Co 

Youghiogheny                

Trenton,  Clinton  Co  

Youghiogheny  

Turkev  Hill 

Turkey  Hill 

Youghiogheny  

Vulcan 

Youghiogheny  

Vulcan 

Youghiogheny  

INDIANA. 
Block 

Youghiogheny 

Youghiogheny 

Youghiogheny  .           

Youghiogheny  

INDIAN  TERRITORY. 
Atoka  

Youghiogheny 

Youghiogheny.. 

Youghiogheny. 

Youghiogheny 

Choctaw  Nation  

Youghiogheny  . 

McAllister  

Oil  (Crude) 

McAllister  

Oil  (Crude) 

—  20  — 


Table  of  American  Coals — Continued. 


,  .  

COAL. 

a.  . 
."2 

•a*  Is 

•2  .£  £  S 

COAL. 

ex   . 

.73 

H  c 

.O   E  0 

8"~5  S 

Name  or  Locality. 

f-'J 

SfrS« 

Name  or  Locality. 

=»£ 

o  n"S^ 

£  >  *  e 

— 

£uj  *  5 

03 

f_UJ  »  Q 

TENNESSEE. 

WASHINGTON. 

Glen  Marv,  Scott  Co  

13167 

13.63 

'Carbon  Hill 

12316 

12.75 

Lump  

12600 

13.04 

'Carbon  Hill                         

12085 

12.51 

Lump  

12215 

12.65 

Carbon  Hill                        

12866 

13.32 

TEXAS. 

WEST  VIRGINIA. 

Ft.  Worth 

<I4  iO 

9  78 

New  River                          

13374 

13.84 

rt.  Worth 

11803 

JO     00 

INew  River                             ..  . 

12806 

13.26 

VIRP.IMI  A 

New  River 

12800 

13.25 

New  River  

12962 

13.52 

Pocohontas  ... 

i  :;:;<•).•; 

13.83 

Pocohontas 

130°9 

13.49 

The  average  proximate  analysis  of  a  few  of  the  commonest  coals  are  given  in  the  fol- 
lowing table: 

Moisture. 

Volatile 
Matter. 

Fixed 
Carbon. 

Ash. 

Sulphur. 

Ordinary  Illinois    .                    .            

9.90 
6.40 
1.70 
2.00 

.85 

33.40 
30.60 
31.80 
6.40 
18.40 

43.80 
54.60 
60.10 
78.40 
77.60 

12.80 
8.30 
6.40 
13.20 
2.90 

3.35 
1.78 
.84 

Best  Illinois  . 

Pennsylvania  Bituminous 

Pennsylvania  Anthracite 

New  River,  W.  Va  ... 

0.26 

Boiler  Plant  of  the  Orleans  Street  Ry.  Co., 
NEW  ORLEANS,  LA. 
500  H.  P.  Heine  Boilers. 


—  21  — 


As  foreign  results  in  the  work  of  both  boilers  and  engines  are  frequently 
brought  to  our  notice  by  the  professional  press,  it  will  be  convenient  to  have 
some  tables  of  English,  French  and  other  foreign  coals,  for  purposes  of  com- 
parison, and  they  are  here  given  : 


o 
z 

III 

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—     u>                      --                     uj             P3           r^" 

> 

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1    "rjn  ""^   .^                     ^>             'o  P  i             CU                ^ 

x^Xrt^      ^       2^      Q      -M 

•—     ^"£y~M                          ^     1)            r-rS'S 

N^     OJ     Oj     r^     JP                             C^     r^             r^   -£—     ^^ 
J^  '^Xr1  f]   ,     ]  (f)                           -^  p              ^>  ^)  l     ^ 

—  22  — 


Steel  Framing  of  the  Carnegie  Building, 

PITTSBURGH,  PA., 
Completed  building  contains  505  H.  P.  Heine  Boilers. 


TABLE  No.  14. 

Composition  and  Heating  Power  of  French  Coals. 

D.  K.  c. 


COAL. 

COMPOSITION. 

Fixed  Carbon. 

Volatile  Elements. 

HEATING 
POWER   OF  1 
Ib.  OF  COAL. 

Theoretical  Evap- 
orative Power. 

| 
U 

c 

01 

to 
o 

•0 

>, 

X 

c 

£ 
5- 

O 

c 

01 

M 

o 

Z 

V 

£ 

Per 
Cent. 

£ 

< 

•o 
S 

> 

V 

£ 

O 

TJ 
t> 

5i 
3 
U 
« 
U 

RONCHAMP. 
No.  1- 

Per 
Cent. 

76.5 
68.6 
76.2 

Per 
Cent. 

4.4 
4.0 

4  1 

Per 
Cent. 

3.0 
4.7 
5.9 

Per 
Cent. 

1.1 
1.1 
1  0 

Per 

Cent. 

15.0 
20.8 
12.8 
16.2 
16.2 

13.1 

13.5 
11.6 
12.7 
12.3 
10.4 
10  5 

Per 
Cent. 

61.7 
55.6 
62.3 
62.4 
60.5 

53.5 
'  52.9 
53.7 
50.2 
47.3 

Per 
Cent. 

23.3 
23.6 
24.9 
21.4 
23.3 

33.4 
33.6 
34.7 
37.1  i 
40.4  i 

B.T.  U. 

14357 
13743 
14085 
13995 
14045 

13833 
13320 
13548 
13647 
12665 
13608 
13865 

12720 
12825 
116108 

B.T.  U. 

13820 
12430 
13590 
12960 
13220 

12880 
12720 
12860 
12440 
11800 
13480 
13030 

12390 
11950 
148*0 

Pounds. 
of 
Water.- 
14.86 
14.23 
14.59 
14.49 
14.54 

14.32 
13.79 
14.03 
14.13 
13.11 
14.09 
14.36 

13.17 
13.28 
16.68 

No.  2__- 

0.8 

No.  3  

No.  4  _ 

73.1 

3  8 

4.9 

1  0 

Average  _ 

73.6 

4  1 

4.6 

1  5 

SARREBRUCK.* 
Dudweiler  - 

71.3 
69.3 
70.3 
67.8 
64.7 
73.3 
70.6 

4.1 
4.3 
4.3 
4.2 
3.9 
4.6 
4  5 

9.2 
9.9 
11.5 
138 
15.0 
9.6 
11.2 

0.5 

0.5 
0.5 
0.5 
0.5 
0.5 
0  5 

1.8 
2.5 
1.8 
1.0 
3.6 
1.6 
2.7 

Altenwald 

Heinitz- 

Friedrichsthal 

Louisenthal 

Sulzbach  

Von  der  Heyt 

BLANZY. 
Montceau  

Anthracitic 

66.1 
67  0 

4.4 
3  6 

13.2 
5  9 

0.5 
0  5 

10.3 
21  0 

5.0 
2  0 





Creuzot,  Anthracite-- 

87.4 

35 

3? 

05 

36 

1.8 

i 

Combustion  of  Coal. 

"When  coal  is  exposed  to  heat  in  a  furnace,  a  portion  of  the  carbon  and' 
hydrogen,  associated  in  various  chemical  unions,  as  hydro-carbons,  are  vol- 
atilized and  passed  off.  At  the  lowest  temperature,  naphthaline,  resins,  and; 
fluids  with  high  boiling  points  are  disengaged  ;  next,  at  a  higher  tempera- 
ture, volatile  fluids  are  disengaged ;  and  still  higher,  olefiant  gas,  followed  by 
common  gas,  light  carburetted  hydrogen,  which  continues  to  be  given  off 
after  the  coal  has  reached  a  low  red  heat.  What  remains  after  the  distilla- 
tory process  is  over,  is  coke,  which  is  the  fixed  or  solid  carbon  of  coal,  with. 
earthy  matter,  the  ash  of  the  coal. 

Taking  the  fixed  carbon,  or  coke  remaining  in  the  furnace  after  the  vol- 
atile elements  are  distilled  off,  for  round  numbers  at  60  per  cent.,  the  follow- 
ing is  an  approximate  summary  of  the  condition  of  the  elements  of  average 
coal,  after  having  been  decomposed,  and  prior  to  entering  into  combustion  :: 
100  POUNDS  OF  AVERAGE  COAL  IN  THE  FURNACE. 


LBS. 


.60 


COMPOSITION. 

^.,,•1™..   /Fixed 

Carbon   (volatilized 20 

Hydrogen 5 

Sulphur--  11-4 

Oxygen 8 

Nitrogen 1  1-5 

Ash 4 


DECOMPOSITION.  LBS. 

Fixed  Carbon 60 

Hydrocarbons 24 

Sulphur 1  1-4 

Water  or  Steam--  -  9 

Nitrogen 1  1-5 

Ash 4 


100 


About _  100 


showing  a  total  useful  combustible  of  86J  per  cent,  of  which  26J  per  cent. 
is  volatilized.  While  the  decomposition  proceeds,  combustion  proceeds,  and; 
the  26J  per  cent,  of  volatilized  portions,  and  the  60  per  cent,  of  fixed  car- 
bon, successively,  are  burned. 


*  These  are  now  German  Coals. 


24  — 


The  sulphur  and  a  portion  of  the  nitrogen  are  disengaged  in  combina- 
tion with  hydrogen,  as  sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  ammonia.  But  these  com- 
pounds are  small  in  quantity,  and,  for  the  sake  of  simplicity,  they  have  not 
been  indicated  in  the  above  synopsis. 

There  are  three  modes  of  supplying  coal  to  ordinary  furnaces  by  hand 
firing,  namely  :  spreading,  alternate,  and  coking  firing.  In  spreading  firing; 
the  charge  of  coal  is  scattered  evenly  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  grate, 
commencing  generally  at  the  bridge,  and  working  forward  to  the  door.  In 
alternate  firing  the  charge  of  coal  is  laid  evenly  along  half  the  width  of  the 
grate  at  a  time,  from  back  to  front,  each  side  alternately.  In  coking  firing 
the  charge  of  coal  is  thrown  on  to  the  dead  plate  and  the  front  part  of  the 
bars  and  left  there  for  a  time,  in  order  that  the  mass  may  become  coked 
through,  and  when  that  is  done  the  mass  is  pushed  back  towards  the  bridge,. 
and  another  charge  is  thrown  on  to  the  front  of  the  fire  in  its  place.  In  this 
way  the  gases  are  gradually  evolved  from  the  coal  at  the  front,  while  a  bright 
fire  is  maintained  at  the  back. 

It  is  thought  advantageous,  in  slowly  burning  furnaces  having  long  flues,, 
that  the  fuel  should  be  slightly  moist,  and  that  the  ash  pits  should  be  sup- 
plied with  water,  from  which  steam  may  be  generated  by  the  heat  radiated 
downwards  from  the  fire,  and  passed  through  the  firegrate.  The  access  of 
water  to  the  fuel  lessens  the  "glow  fire"  or  flameless  incandescence  of  the 
fixed  carbon  on  the  grate,  and  increases  the  quantity  of  flame  by  forming 
carbonic  oxide  and  hydrogen  gases  in  its  decomposition  into  its  elements, 
oxygen  and  hydrogen,  and  the  reduction,  by  the  oxygen,  of  the  carbonic 
acid  already  formed  in  the  furnace.  The  newly  made  gases  are  afterwards 
burned  in  the  flues.  The  presence  of  moisture,  even  in  coke,  gives  rise  to 
flame  in  the  flues,  and  reduces  the  intensity  of  the  heat  in  the  glow  fire. 
The  combustion,  in  fact,  is  deferred,  or  distributed  ;  and  it  is  on  this  princi- 
ple that  moist  bituminous  coals  are  most  effective  in  furnaces  having  long 
flues,  as  in  Cornish  boilers. 

That  two  coals  of  identical  composition  may  possess  very  different  heat- 
ing powers  is  evidenced  by  comparing  the  bituminous  coals  of  Creuzot  and 
Ronchamp,  which  have  the  following  nearly  identical  compositions,  reckon- 
ing the  coal  as  dry  and  pure,  or  free  from  ash  : 

Carbon.  Hydrogen,  Oxygen,  Heating 

Percent.  F-ercent.  Percent.  Power. 

Creuzot 88.48  4.41  7.11  17320 

Ronchamp 88.32  4.78  6.89  16339 

while  there  is  a  difference  of  six  per  cent,  in  the  actual  heating  powers. 
Correspondingly,  the  Creuzot  coal  had  only  19.6  per  cent,  of  volatile  matters,, 
while  the  Ronchamp  coal  yielded  27  per  cent. 

Lignite   and  Asphalt. 

Brown  lignite  is  sometimes  of  a  woody  texture,  sometimes  earthy. 
Black  lignite  is  either  of  a  woody  texture,  or  it  is  homogeneous,  with  a 
resinous  fracture.  Some  lignites,  more  fully  developed,  are  of  a  schistose 
character,  with  pyrites  in  their  composition.  The  coke  produced  from 
various  lignites  is  either  pulverulent,  like  that  of  anthracite,  or  it  retains  the 
forms  of  the  original  fibres.  Lignite  is  less  dense  than  coal. 

—  2.)  — 


Asphalt,  like  lignite,  has  a  large  proportion  of  hydrogen.  It  has  less 
than  9  per  cent,  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen,  and  thus  leaves  8£  per  cent,  of 
free  hydrogen,  and  it  accordingly  yields  a  porous  coke. 

The  average  composition  of  perfect  lignite  and  of  asphalt  may  be  taken 
in  whole  numbers  as  follows  : 

Lignite.  Asphalt. 

Carbon 69  per  cent.  79  per  cent. 

Hydrogen 5        "  9        " 

Oxygen  and  Nitrogen 20        "  9        " 

Ash 6        "  3        " 


100  100 

Coke,  by  laboratory  analysis 47        "  9        " 

The  lignites  are  distinguished  from  coal  by  the  large  proportion  of  oxygen 
in  their  composition — from  13  to  29  per  cent. 

The  heating  powers  of  lignite  and  asphalt  are  respectively  measured 
by  13,108  units,  and  17,040  units. 

WOOD. 

Wood,  as  a  combustible,  is  divisible  into  two  classes :  1st.  The  hard, 
compact,  and  comparatively  heavy  woods,  as  oak,  beech,  elm,  ash ;  2d.  The 
light-colored,  soft,  and  comparatively  light  woods,  as  pine,  birch,  poplar. 

In  the  forests  of  Central  Europe,  wood  cut  down  in  winter  holds,  at  the 
end  of  the  following  summer,  more  than  40  per  cent,  of  water.  Wood  kept 
for  several  years  in  a  dry  place  retains  from  15  to  20  per  cent,  of  water. 
Wood  which  has  been  thoroughly  desiccated  will,  when  exposed  to  air  under 
ordinary  circumstances,  absorb  5  per  cent  of  water  in  the  first  three  days; 
and  will  continue  to  absorb  it  until  it  reaches  from  14  to  16  per  cent.,  as  a 
normal  standard.  The  amount  fluctuates  above  and  below  this  standard, 
according  to  the  state  of  the  atmosphere.  Ordinary  firewood  contains,  by 
analysis,  from  27  to  80  per  cent,  of  hygrometric  moisture. 

The  woods  of  various  trees  are  nearly  identical  in  chemical  composition, 
which  is  practically  as  follows,  showing  the  composition  of  perfectly  dry 
wood,  and  of  ordinary  firewood  holding  hygroscopic  moisture  : 

TABLE  No.  is. 

Desiccated  Wood.  Ordinary  Firewood. 

Carbon 50  per  cent 37.5   per  cent. 

Hydrogen 6  per  cent 4.5   percent. 

Oxygen 41  per  cent 30.75  per  cent. 

Nitrogen 1  per  cent 0.75  per  cent. 

Ash---  -2  per  cent--        1.5   percent. 

100  per  cent.  75.0  per  cent. 

Hygrometric  water 25.0  per  cent. 

100.0 

The  quantity  of  intersticial  space  in  a  closely  packed  pile  of  wood,  con> 
sisting  of  round  uncloven  stems,  is  30  per  cent,  of  the  gross  bulk  ;  for  cloven 
stems,  the  intersticial  space  amounts  to  from  40  to  50  per  cent. 

English  oak — a  hard  wood — weighs  58  Ibs.  per  solid  cubic  foot ;  its 
specific  gravity  is  .93.  Yellow  pine — a  soft  wood — weighs  41  Ibs.  per  solid 
cubic  foot ;  its  specific  gravity  is  .66. 


£>      3 


_*  o 


H 


n  2 


='   O   n 

(D 

CO  ;-, 

^ 


A  cord  of  pine  wood — that  is,  of  pine  wood  cut  up  and  piled — in  the 
United  States,  measures  4  feet  by  4  feet  by  8  feet,  and  has  a  volume  of  128 
cubic  feet.  Its  weight  in  ordinary  condition  averages  2700  Ibs.;  or  21  Ibs. 
per  cubic  foot. 

The  quantity  of  air  chemically  consumed  in  the  complete  combustion  of 
one  pound  of  perfectly  dry  wood,  by  rule  1,  page  13,  is  80  cubic  feet  at  62° 
F.,  or  6.09  Ibs.  of  air.  The  quantity  of  burnt  gases  for  1  Ib.  of  perfectly 
dry  wood  are 

TABLE  No.  16. 

By  Weight.  By  Volume. 

Lbs.  Per  cent.     Cu.  ft.  at  62°F.    Per  cent. 

Carbonic  acid 1.83  21.7  15.75  14.4 

Steam 0.54  6.4  11.40  10.4 

Nitrogen 6.08  71.9  82.01  75.2 


Totals 8.45          100.0          109.16          100.0 

showing  that  there  are  8J  Ibs.,  or  109  cubic  feet,  at  62°  F.,  of  burnt  gases 
per  pound  of  wood,  13  cubic  feet  to  the  pound. 

The  total  heat  of  combustion  of  perfectly  dry  wood,  by  rule  4,  page  14, 
is  10974  units,  which  is  75  per  cent,  of  that  of  coal,  and  is  equivalent,  by 
rule  5,  to  the  evaporation  of  11.36  Ibs.  of  water  from  and  at  212°  F. 

When  the  wood  holds  25  per  cent,  of  water,  there  is  only  75  per  cent. 
or  three-quarter  pound  of  wood  substance  in  one  pound  ;  and  the  total  heat 
of  combustion  is  75  per  cent,  of  10974  units,  or  8230  units,  which  is  only 
56£  per  cent,  of  that  of  average  coal.  Similarly,  the  equivalent  evaporative 
power  is  reduced  to  8.52  Ibs.  of  water  from  and  at  212°,  of  which  the  equiva- 
lent of  a  quarter  of  a  pound  is  appropriated  to  the  vaporizing  of  the  con- 
tained moisture — that  is  to  say,  for  evaporating  one-quarter  pound  of  water, 
supplied  at  62°  F.,  the  quantity  of  heat  is  1116°-^4=279  units,  and  the  net 
available  heat  for  service  is  8230 — 279=7951  units  per  pound  of  fuel  holding 
25  per  cent  of  water.* 

In  order  to  obtain  the  maximum  heating  power  from  wood  as  fuel,  it  is 
the  practice,  in  some  works  on  the  continent  of  Europe, — as  glass  works  and 
porcelain  works, — where  intensity  of  heat  is  required,  to  dry  the  wood  fuel 
thoroughly,  even  using  stoves  for  the  purpose,  before  using  it." 

D.  K.  C. 

The  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers  in  their  Rules  for  Boiler 
Tests  allow  1  Ib.  of  wood  =  0.4  Ib.  of  coal ;  or  2i  Ibs.  of  wood  =  1  Ib.  of 
coal.  Other  authorities  estimate  2£  Ibs.  of  dry  wood  =  1  Ib.  of  good  coal. 
One  pound  of  wood  is  practically  equivalent  to  one  pound  of  any  other  kind 
of  wood  equally  dry. 

TABLE  No.  17. 

1  cord  of  hickory  or  hard  maple  weighs 4500  Ibs.  and  =  2000  Ibs.  coal. 

1  cord  of  white  oak  weighs 3850  Ibs.  and  =  1711  Ibs.  coal. 

1  cord  of  beech,  red  oak,  or  black  oak  weighs 3250  Ibs.  and  =  1445  Ibs.  coal. 

1  cord  of  poplar,  chestnut,  or  elm  weighs 2350  Ibs.  and  -=  1041  Ibs.  coal. 

1  cord  of  average  pine  weighs 2000  Ibs.  and  =    890  Ibs.  coal. 

*  This  figure  may  be  used  for  a  close  approximation  in  comparing  a  certain  kind  of 
wood  to  a  known  coal.  Suppose  the  calculated  heat  in  a  pound  of  the  coal  to  be  13025 
B.  T.  U-,  and  an  actual  boi  ler  test  showed  an  evaporation  of  seven  pounds  of  water  per  pound 
of  coal.  Then  1 3025:7951  ;:7:4. 28,  z.  e.,  you  may  expect  to  evaporate  about  4.28  Ibs.  of 
water  per  pound  of  the  wood  in  the  same  boiler. 

—  28  — 


In  substituting  any  kind  of  wood  for  coal  under  a  boiler,  the  dimensions 
of  the  furnace  must  be  increased,  preferably  mainly  in  the  height,  so  that 
by  carrying  a  greater  depth  of  fuel  nearly  as  much  by  weight  may  be  present 
in  the  furnace  as  was  usual  or  necessary  with  the  coal. 


"  BAGASSE." 

Bagasse  is  the  fibrous  portion  of  the  cane  left  after  the  juice  has  been 
extracted  from  it  in  the  mill.  There  is  a  great  difference  in  the  chemical 
composition  of  bagasse  ;  that  from  tropical  canes  shows  a  greater  proportion 
of  combustibles. 

Prof.  L.  A.  Becnel,  in  an  address  to  the  Louisana  Sugar  Chemists  Asso- 
ciation, said:  "  The  judicious  use  of  bagasse  as  fuel  is  perhaps  one  of  the 
most  important  questions  with  which  we  have  to  deal,  and  which  has  a  direct 
bearing  on  the  reduction  of  cost  of  manufacture."  He  then  quotes  from  Mr. 
N.  Lubbock  that  4.83  Ibs.  of  bagasse  from  a  double  mill  making  72  per  cent 
extraction,  or  5.98  Ibs.  of  single  mill  bagasse  of  66  per  cent  extraction,  will 
produce  about  as  much  heat  as  one  pound  of  Scotch  coal. 

Mr.  L.  Metesser,  as  the  result  of  a  number  of  tests  in  Cuba  and  Mexico, 
reports  from  4.25  to  5  Ibs.  of  70  per  cent  bagasse  as  equal  to  one  pound  of 
good  coal. 

Tropical  cane  and  the  bagasse  remaining  after  mill  extraction  are  of 
about  the  following  composition  : 

Cane.     QQ%  Bagasse,     70%  Bagasse.     72%  Bagasse. 

Woody  Fibre 12.5  37  40  45 

Water 73.4  53  50  46 

Combustible  Salts •     14.1 10        10 9 

100  Ibs.         100  Ibs.  100  Ibs.  100  Ibs.  " 

Taking  these  figures  as  a  basis,  and  remembering  that  the  water  in  the 
bagasse  has  to  be  first  brought  up  from  an  average  temperature  of  say  86°  F., 
to  steam  under  atmospheric  pressure,  requiring  1060  H.  U.,  and  that  this 
steam  has  to  be  raised  to  the  average  stack  temperature  say  300°  higher,  and 
taking  the  specific  heat  of  gaseous  steam  at  0.475,  which  would  give  say  142 
H.  U.  more,  therefore  a  total  of  1200  H.  U.  per  pound  of  water.  Mr.  Lub- 
bock found  51  per  cent  of  carbon  in  the  woody  fibre,  and  42.1  per  cent  of  car- 
bon in  the  combustible  salts.  Since  a  pound  of  carbon  in  perfect  combustion 
will  liberate  14500  H.  U.,  we  will  have  in  100  Ibs.  of  66  per  cent  bagasse, 
334660  H.  U.,  from  which  we  must  deduct  63600  H.  U.  as  absorbed  by  the 
water,  leaving  271060  H.  U.  available  as  fuel.  In  like  manner,  we  have  in  the 
72  per  cent  bagasse  387730  H.  U.,from  which  we  must  deduct  55200  absorbed 
by  the  water,  leaving  332530  H.  U.  available. 

In  comparing  this  with  good  Youghiogheny  coal  of  say  13000  H.  U.,  and 
good  Scotch  coal  of  148GO  H.  U.  calorific  value,  we  find  the  fuel  value  of  the 
€6  per  cent  bagasse  to  be  : 

5       Ibs.  bagasse  equals  one  pound  Youghiogheny  coal, 
5.52     "  "        "        "      Scotch  coal, 

and  that  of  the  72  per  cent  bagasse  to  be 

3.85  Ibs.  bagasse  equals  one  pound  Youghiogheny  coal, 
4.35   "  "        "        "      Scotch  coal. 

—  29  — 


It  will  probably  require  considerably  more  of  the  Louisiana  bagasse  than 
of  the  tropical  bagasse,  since  it  has  about  25  per  cent  less  woody  fibre  than 
the  latter. 

Mr.  Becnel,  estimates  with  75  per  cent  Louisiana  bagasse  as  a  basis,  that 
"  To  manufacture  one  ton  of  cane  into  sugar  and  molasses,  it  will  take  from 
145  to  190  Ibs.  additional  coal  by  the  open  evaporation  process ;  from  85  to 
112  Ibs.  additional  coal  with  a  double  effect,"  and  with  triple  effect  it  appears 
the  bagasse  alone  would  do  the  work,  and  have  enough  steam  to  spare  to 
run  engines,  grind  cane,  etc.  "  If  this  has  not  yet  been  accomplished  in 
Louisiana,  may  it  not  be  due  more  to  imperfect  boiler  and  evaporating  plants 
than  to  a  deficiency  in  heat  producing  properties  of  the  bagasse?" 

The  above  of  course  can  only  be  taken  as  approximately  correct.  The 
results  will  vary  greatly  according  to  the  kind  of  boilers  and  furnaces  used. 
From  the  nature  of  this  fuel,  it  follows  that  it  should  be  fed  continuously  into 
a  very  hot  fire  brick  chamber,  and  that  plenty  of  room  must  be  left  in  the 
furnace  and  boiler  setting  to  accommodate  the  large  volume  of  gas  and  steam 
produced  by  the  bagasse. 


Bridge  Mill  Power  Co., 

PAWTUCKET,  R.  I. 
Contains  610  H.  P.  of  Heine  Boilers. 


—  30  — 


The  higher  the  per  cent  of  extraction  the  more  fuel  value  the  bagasse 
will  have,  and  as  it  will  necessarily  contain  less  moisture,  the  larger  pro- 
portion of  this  enhanced  fuel  value  becomes  available  in  the  boiler  furnace. 
The  improvement  in  boiler  plants  will  thus  naturally  go  hand  in  hand  with 
improved  methods  of  extraction. 

TAN   AND   STRAW. 

Tan. 

"Tan,  or  oak  bark,  after  having  been  used  in  the  process  of  tanning,  is 
burned  as  fuel.  The  spent  tan  consists  of  the  fibrous  portion  of  the  bark. 
According  to  M.  Peclet,  five  parts  of  oak  bark  produce  four  parts  of  dry  tan ; 
and  the  heating  power  of  perfectly  dry  tan,  containing  15  per  cent  of  ash,  is 
6100  English  units,  while  that  of  tan  in  an  ordinary  state  of  dryness,  con- 
taining 30  per  cent  of  water,  is  only  4284  English  units.  The  weight  of 
water  evaporated  at  212°  by  one  pound  of  tan,  equivalent  to  these  heating 
powers,  is  as  follows  : 

With  30%  of 
Perfectly  Dry.  Moisture. 

Water  supplied  at  62° 5.46  Ibs.  3.84  Ibs. 

Water  supplied  at  212° 6.31  Ibs.  4.44  Ibs. 

(See  note  under  Wood.) 

Straw. 

The  composition  of  straw,  in  its  ordinary  air-dried  condition,  is  given  by 
Mr.  John  Head,  as  follows: 

TABLE  No.  is. 

Wheat  Straw,  Barley  Straw.  Mean, 

per  cent.  per  cent.  per  cent. 

Carbon 35.86  36.27  36. 

Hydrogen 5.01  5.07                 5. 

Oxygen 37.68  38.26  38. 

Nitrogen .45  .40                   .425 

Ash 5.00  4.50                 4.75 

Water 16.00  15.50  15.75 


100.00  100.00  100.00 

The  weight  of  pressed  straw  is  from  6  Ibs.  to  8  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot. 

Heat  of  Combustion  of  Straw. 

For  straw  of  mean  composition,  the  total  heat  generated  is,  by  rule  4, 
equal  to  145  [36  +  (4.28X5)]  =  8323  units  of  heat,  or  the  evaporation  of 
7.46  Ibs.  of  water  from  and  at  212°  F.  Deducting  the  heat  absorbed  in 
evaporating  the  constituent  water,  15^  per  cent,  or.  16  lb.,  equal  to  1116x.l6= 
179  units,  the  available  heat  is  8323—179  =  8144  units,  equivalent  to  the 
evaporation  of  7.30  Ibs.  of  water  from  and  at  212°. 

(See  note  under  Wood.) 

LIQUID  FUELS. 

Petroleum  is  a  hydrocarbon  liquid  which  is  found  in  abundance  in 
America  and  Europe.  According  to  the  analysis  of  M.  Sainte-Claire  Deville, 
the  composition  of  fifteen  petroleums  from  different  sources  was  found  to  be 
practically  the  same.  The  average  specific  gravity  was  .870.  The  extreme 
and  the  average  elementary  compositions  were  as  follows: 

—  31  — 


TABLE  No.  19. 
Chemical  Composition  of  Petroleum. 

Carbon--  -.82.0  to  87.1  per  cent.  Average,  84.7  per  cent. 
Hydrogen--  --11.2  to  14.8  per  cent.  Average,  13.1  per  cent. 
Oxygen  -.  -  0.5  to  5.7  per  cent.  Average,  2.2  per  cent. 

100.0 

The  total  heating  and  evaporative  powers  of  one  pound  of  petroleum 
having  this  average  composition  are,  by  rules  4  and  5,  as  follows  : 

Total  heating  power =  145  [84.7  -f  (4.28X13.1)]  =  20411  units. 

Evaporative  power  :  evaporating  at  212°,  water  supplied  at   62°  =  18.29  Ibs. 
Evaporative  power :  evaporating  at  212°,  water  supplied  at  212°  =  21.13  Ibs. 

Petroleum  oils  are  obtained  in  great  variety  by  distillation  from  petroleum. 
They  are  compounds  of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  ranging  from  Cio  H24  to 
•C32  Hc4 ;  or,  in  weight ; 

TABLE  No.  20. 


Chemical  Composition  of  Petroleum  Oils. 

Mean. 

.42  Carbon      \  ,     f  73.77  Carbon 72.60 

1.58  Hydrogen/  lo  \26.23  Hydrogen 27.40 


100.00  100.00  100.00 

The  specific  gravity  ranges  from  .628  to  .792.  The  boiling  point  ranges 
from  86°  to  495°  F.  The  total  heating  power  ranges  from  28087  to  26975 
units  of  heat ;  equivalent  to  the  evaporation,  at  212°,  of  from  25.17  to  24.17 
Ibs.  of  water  supplied  at  62°,  or  from  29.08  Ibs.  to  27.92  Ibs.  of  water  supplied 
at  212°. 

D.  K.  C. 

Oil  as  a  Fuel. 

"Inasmuch  as  the  use  of  oil  as  a  fuel  is  now  engaging  the  serious  atten- 
tion of  many  of  our  principal  engineers  and  manufacturers,  we  beg  leave  to 
submit  for  your  consideration  the  following  advantages  which  are  claimed 
for  oil  as  against  coke,  coal  or  wood  as  a  fuel. 

1st.  A  petroleum  fire  can  be  held  in  perfect  control  by  one  man  of 
ordinary  intelligence,  by  the  mere  turning  of  a  valve.  He  can  increase  or 
decrease  the  fire  at  will,  and  can  maintain  steam  or  heat  at  any  desired 
point.  When  the  fire  is  properly  regulated  to  produce  the  heat  required,  it 
can  be  kept  at  that  point  with  but  slight  attention,  so  slight,  indeed,  that  one 
man  can  fire  and  care  for  a  battery  of  from  eight  to  ten  100-horse-power 
boilers  without  difficulty.  By  turning  a  valve  you  can  instantly  extinguish 
the  fire,  if  occasion  does  not  require  its  continuous  use,  and  it  can  be  again 
started  with  almost  the  same  rapidity  with  a  few  shavings  or  sticks  of  wood. 
There  is  no  waste,  as  with  coal,  when  the  work  is  done. 

2d.  The  heat  generated  with  petroleum  fire  is  much  more  uniform  than 
that  produced  with  coal  or  wood.  The  fire  is  not  as  sensitive  to  the  fluctua- 
tion of  the  weather  as  other  fires.  A  great  advantage  is  gained  in  running 
machinery  where  regularity  of  speed  is  desirable.  A  constant  supply  of 
steam  may  be  furnished,  and  there  is  no  reduction  of  steam  pressure  in  con- 
sequence of  the  replenishing  of  fires. 

—  32- 


3d.  Economy  of  Boiler  Capacity. —  It  has  been  demonstrated  that  one 
pound  of  oil  will  evaporate  the  water  of  more  than  two  pounds  of  coal.  The 
heat  units  of  crude  petroleum  have  been  erroneously  stated  to  be  27531. 
The  fact  is,  that  the  correct  figure,  20240  heat  units,  has  been  repeatedly 
arrived  at  of  late,  after  many  tests  with  the  best  instruments  to  be  obtained 
for  that  purpose.  In  comparing  the  calorific  properties  of  petroleum  it  must 
be  borne  in  mind  that  with  coal  there  is  an  enormous  waste  of  matter,  such 
as  sulphur,  slate  and  earthy  substances  which  are  practically  incombustible, 
and  which  do  not  add  in  the  generation  of  heat.  While  coal  theoreti- 
cally contains  about  14300  heat  units,  that  figure  is,  by  reason  of  these 
impurities,  reduced  to  about  8000.  Pure  carbon  —  charcoal,  for  instance  — 
contains  14500  heat  units.  Considering,  therefore,  the  imperceptible  waste 
in  the  burning  of  oil,  and  the  excessive  waste  in  the  burning  of  coal,  the 
conclusion  is  reached  that  while  theoretically  the  relative  proportion  of  heat 
evolved  in  the  combustion  of  oil  compared  with  coal  is  as  20.2  is  to  14.3,  the 
proportion  practically  considered,  is  in  favor  of  oil  as  19  is  to  8,  or  8.5  at  the 
furthest.  We  may  quite  safely  assume,  then,  that  the  heating  capacity  of 
oil  is  considerably  more  than  twice  that  of  coal  as  far  as  now  shown.  With 
a  clean  boiler,  properly  attended,  and  with  the  best  of  coal  fuel,  well  stoked 
night  and  day  —  with  every  care  to  insure  combustion  and  to  avoid  waste, 
the  evaporation  obtained  in  some  isolated  cases  specially  recorded  has  been 
as  high  as  9£  pounds.  In  our  every  day  experience,  however,  we  find 
that  eighty  out  of  a  hundred  boilers  will  not  vaporize  more  than  from  7  to 
7£  pounds  of  water  per  pound  of  fuel.  On  the  other  hand,  oil  tests,  which, 
while  sufficiently  conclusive  for  the  present,  have  not,  by  any  means,  been 
carried  to  the  furthest  limit,  show  the  evaporation  from  17.56  to  18. 5  pounds 
of  water  per  pound  of  oil  consumed,  from  and  at  212°  Fahrenheit. 

4th.  Economy  in  labor,  cleanliness  and  safety  are  secured,  as  in 
burning  oil  complete  combustion  may  be  obtained.  There  is  no  shoveling  of 
ashes,  and  consequently  there  is  a  great  saving  in  labor.  The  absence  of 
sparks  and  cinders  and  the  ability  to  extinguish  the  fire  instantly  in  case  of 
danger,  makes  it  very  desirable  when  considered  with  a  view  to  safety. 

5th.  There  being  no  necessity  for  opening  doors  for  the  introduction  of 
fuel,  there  is  no  fluctuation  of  heat,  and  no  sudden  chilling  of  the  flues  and 
boiler.  The  absence  of  sulphur  in  the  fuel  makes  its  action  on  the  metal  of 
the  boiler  and  the  flues  much  less  destructive  than  coal,  and  the  flues  remain 
cleaner  and  in  better  condition  to  absorb  the  heat. 

6th.  Oil  or  Residuum,  is  without  doubt,  the  coming  fuel  on  locomotives 
and  ocean  steamers,  and  by  its  use  a  great  annoyance  to  passengers  in  the 
emission  of  cinders  and  smoke  will  not  only  be  entirely  avoided,  but  less 
than  one-half  the  room  formerly  used  for  coal  will  be  required  to  store  the 
oil  for  fuel,  and  only  one-third  the  weight  will  be  carried,  thus  saving  a  great 
deal  of  room  in  storage,  which  will  enable  ship  owners  to  carry  an  additional 
quantity  of  freight,  or  to  increase  speed  to  the  same  amount  of  power.  Be- 
sides this,  where  70  stokers  are  now  required  to  unload  coal  on  ocean 
steamers,  at  least  60  could  be  dispensed  with,  and  the  work  be  done  without 
the  labor  of  shoveling  coal  and  the  great  discomfort  from  heat  and  dust. 

7th.  Regarding  the  proper  construction  of  furnaces  for  the  consumption 
of  oil,  it  may  be  said  that  there  is  no  occasion  for  having  the  combustion 
chamber  as  large  as  when  burning  coal.  The  latter  article,  being  solid 

—  34  — 


o 

"1 

n 

TC" 
(T 

rr: 


ro 


matter,  requires  more  time  for  decomposition,  and  the  elimination  of  the 
products  and  supporters  of  combustion.  Coal  fuel  requires  a  large  fire  chamber 
and  the  means  for  the  introduction  of  air  beneath  the  grate-bars  to  aid  com- 
bustion. Compared  with  oil,  the  combustion  of  coal  is  tardy  and  requires 
some  aid  by  way  <„  f  a  strong  draft.  Oil  having  no  ash  or  refuse,  when  prop- 
erly burned,  requires  much  less  space  for  combustion  for  the  reason  that, 
being  a  liquid,  and  the  compound  of  gases  that  are  highly  inflammable  when 
united  in  proper  proportions,  it  gives  off  heat  with  the  utmost  rapidity,  and 
at  the  point  of  ignition  is  all  ready  for  consumption.  The  changes  required 
to  burn  oil  in  a  coal  furnace  may  be  made  at  a  nominal  cost,  so  that  even  in 
this  respect  no  additional  expense  is  necessary  for  a  change  for  the  better. 

8th.  Three  barrels  of  oil,  each  of  42  gallons,  equal  and  slightly  exceed 
the  heating  capacity  of  one  ton  of  coal.  The  oil  weighs  913.5  pounds,  and 
may  be  purchased  and  delivered  in  tank  cars  at  any  point  in  the  United 
States  at  a  very  low  figure.  It  should  be  remembered  that  oil  need  not  be 
shoveled  from  the  cars  to  the  furnace,  it  needs  no  stoking  nor  poking,  it 
leaves  neither  cinders  nor  ashes  to  be  carted  away,  and  it  makes  no  smoke. 
With  an  oil  furnace,  one  man  may  attend  to  a  dozen  boilers  without  any 
further  assistance. 

9th.  The  fact  of  being  able  to  produce  with  oil  a  perfectly  clear,  white  fire, 
free  from  ashes,  smoke,  dust  and  soot,  which  can  be  kept  under  control  and 
regulated  to  any  degree  of  heat  required,  makes  its  use  invaluable  in  electric 
plants,  in  the  manufacture  of  glass,  steel,  crockery,  stoneware,  sewer  pipe, 
brick,  lime,  and  in  fact  almost  any  business  where  such  a  fire  is  required." 

c.  w.  o. 

In  November,  1894,  the  Baldwin  Locomotive  Works,  of  Philadelphia, 
equipped  an  engine  for  burning  fuel  oil  and  obtained  the  results  stated 
below : 

TESTS  OF  OIL  FUEL  ON  LOCOMOTIVE. 


DATE,  1894. 

No.  i. 
November  13. 

No.  2. 
November  18. 

No.  3. 

November  25. 

Weight  of  train,  approximate,  Ibs  

1,308,160 

1  216  120 

1  480  640 

Number  of  cars  

25  and  20 

30 

26 

Length  of  run,  miles  

89.7 

54  9 

52  3 

Time  of  run  

h.  m.  s. 

6  27  00 

h.  m.  s. 
2  56  41 

h.  m.  s. 
3    20  0 

Running  time  

5  14  48 

2  23  26 

2    48  9 

Average  steam  pressure,  Ibs  

171 

170 

Oil  consumption,  total  Ibs  

6,637 

3  200  7 

3  703 

Total  gallons  

905 

Per  hour  

Ibs. 
1,003.2 

Ibs. 
1  086  9 

Ibs. 
1  110  9 

Per  square  foot  of  grate  

237 

114.32 

132  25 

Per  square  foot  of  grate  per  hour 

38.3 

38  82 

39  68 

Per  square  foot  of  heating  surface  

3.13 

Per  square  foot  of  heating  surface  per  hour, 

0.49 

Water  evaporated  :  total  Ibs  

70,933 

34  151  7 

39  169  2 

Total  from  and  at  212°  F  

85,622 

41,465.1 

46,291.6 

Per  hour  

10,998 

Per  hour  from  and  at  212°  F.... 

13,280 

14,082.2 

13,887.5 

Per  Ib.  of  oil  

10.69 

10.67 

10.58 

Per  Ib.  of  oil  from  and  at  212°  F.* 

12.90 

12  95 

12.50 

Per  square  foot  of  heating  surface  

33.47 

16.12 

18.48 

Per  square  foot  of  heating  surface  per  hour, 
Per  square  foot  of  heating  surface  per  hour 
from  and  at  212°  F.... 

5  19 

5.48 
6.64 

5.54 
6.55 

*Without  deducting  the  steam  consumed  for  vaporizing  the  oil,  or  the  entrapment. 

—  36  — 


The  report  on  the  experiments  points  out  that  oil  has  several  advantages 
over  coal:  1,  no  smoke  if  the  firing  is  properly  done;  2,  no  sparks;  3,  no 
terminal  labor  in  cleaning  fires,  hauling  away  ashes  and  loading  coal,  which 
labor  is  said  to  amount  sometimes  to  50  cents  per  ton  of  coal  consumed; 
4,  the  engine  is  always  ready  for  service;  5,  the  fire  is  always  clean  and 
there  is  no  danger  of  its  being  torn  up  by  a  heavy  exhaust  or  by  the  engine 
slipping.  Tests  of  the  oil  used  showed  84  gravity,  140  flash  and  190  fire. 
In  conclusion,  it  is  stated  that  to  determine  the  value  of  oil,  it  is  necessary 
to  know  the  evaporative  power  of  the  boiler  for  each  pound  of  fuel  burned, 
which  depends  greatly  upon  the  ratio  of  heating  surface  to  grate  area,  and 
the  volume  consumed  in  a  given  time.  These  conditions  do  not  seem  to 
affect  the  consumption  of  oil,  the  evaporation  being  about  the  same  per 
pound  of  oil  for  all  rates  of  combustion,  it  being  impossible  to  consume  the 
oil  without  a  proper  supply  of  air,  and,  as  no  smoke  is  made,  no  unconsumed 
fuel  escapes  from  the  smokestack,  as  is  the  case  with  soft  coal.  The  fol- 
lowing formula  is  given  for  obtaining  the  value  of  oil,  as  compared  with  coal, 
as  a  locomotive  fuel,  the  result  being  the  price  per  gallon  at  which  oil  will 
be  the  equivalent  of  coal.  In  this  formula  the  cost  of  both  oil  and  coal  must 
be  the  cost  delivered  on  the  engine,  and  not  the  purchasing  price: 

BX10.7X7 


2,OOOXC 

A=  price  per  gallon  at  which  oil  will  be  equivalent  of  coal;  B  =  cost  of  coal 
per  ton,  plus  the  cost  of  handling  (  say  50  cents  per  ton  )  ;  C  =  evaporative 
power  of  coal. 

From  a  lecture  at  the  Naval  War  College,  Newport,  R.  I.,  delivered  by 
P.  A.  Engineer  John  R.  Edwards,  U.  S.  N.,  in  August,  1895,  we  quote  the 
following: 

With  reference  to  the  use  of  liquid  fuel  on  locomotives,  it  is  interesting 
to  refer  to  the  results  obtained  in  England  by  Mr.  James  Holden,  Locomotive 
Superintendent  of  the  Great  Eastern  Railway,  by  the  process  invented  and 
adopted  by  him.  On  the  locomotive  using  liquid  fuel  there  is  an  absence 
of  constant  and  laborious  firing;  the  requisite  pressure  of  steam  is  easily 
obtained  by  an  almost  imperceptible  movement  of  the  injector  valve;  there 
is  an  absence  of  smoke,  and  a  great  uniformity  of  pressure. 

In  the  inaugural  address  of  the  President  of  the  Society  of  Engineers, 
in  February,  1894,  he  gave  a  description  of  these  locomotives  and  their 
working  cost.  He  stated  that  an  express  engine  using  35.4  pounds  of  coal 
per  mile,  consumed  under  similar  circumstances  11.8  pounds  of  coal  and  10.5 
pounds  of  liquid  fuel,  or  a  total  of  22.3  pounds  of  fuel. 

The  advantages  of  the  Holden  system  are  summed  up  as  follows: 

1st.  With  an  ordinary  grate,  steam  can  be  easily  raised  without  work- 
ing the  injector. 

2d.     Fuel  can  be  interchanged  according  to  the  state  of  the  market. 

3d.  With  a  thin  coal  fire,  oil  can  be  shut  off  at  will  without  running 
the  risk  of  chilling  the  fire  box. 

4th.     When  standing,  the  coal  fire  will  maintain  steam. 

For  several  years  a  number  of  locomotive  engines  on  the  Great  Eastern 
Railway  have  used  liquid  fuel,  and  one  of  these  engines  is  recorded  to  have 

—  37  — 


traveled  47,000  miles  without  a  single  failure  or  accident.  But  the  great 
difficulty  in  extending  the  use  of  liquid  fuel  in  England  is  the  impossibility 
of  obtaining  a  sufficient  supply  at  a  low  cost,  otherwise  it  would  be  very 
generally  used,  considering  the  great  calorific  effect  and  the  practical 
advantages  of  its  application. 

It  has  been  very  recently  stated  that  since  the  introduction  in  the  naval 
ships  of  liquid  fuel,  the  cost  in  Italy  has  increased  one  hundred  and  fifty  per 
cent  (150  per  cent). 

One  of  the  highest  officials  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  asserted  that 
the  great  cost  attending  its  use  was  a  bar  to  its  introduction  in  the  loco- 
motives of  that  road. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  some  places  where  it  can  be  secured  more 
cheaply  than  coal. 

The  question  of  cost,  therefore,  depends  upon  location. 

A  great  writer  upon  this  subject  has  said:  "We  must  look  for  the  best 
results  from  petroleum,  both  economically  and  technically,  in  those  uses 
where  the  improved  product  of  the  manufactured  article  more  than  counter- 
balances the  difference  in  price  of  the  two  kinds  of  fuel." 

CHIEF  ENGINEER  SOLIANI'S  MONOGRAPH  ON   LIQUID  FUEL. 

Undoubtedly  one  of  the  best  articles  that  has  been  published  on  this 
subject  is  the  paper  of  Chief  Engineer  Soliani  of  the  Italian  Navy,  which 
was  read  at  the  International  Engineering  Congress.  He  starts  in  with  the 
various  kinds  of  petroleum  used,  gives  the  chemical  composition,  what  its 
actual  calorific  value  as  fuel  is,  and  then  goes  on  to  tell  about  the  experi- 
ments in  Russia,  where  it  was  first  used  on  vessels  in  the  Volga  region  and 
on  the  Caspian  Sea.  He  then  gives  us  the  pulverizing  process  adopted  by 
Mr.  Urquhardt,  and  then  brings  us  down  to  to-day's  actual  modern  experi- 
ence in  the  Italian  Navy. 

A  careful  study  of  this  paper  shows : 

1st.  That  the  only  form  of  liquid  fuel  which  is  absolutely  safe  for  use 
on  board  of  ship  is  what  is  known  as  petroleum  refuse,  which  is  a  thick 
viscous  fluid  of  about  the  consistency  of  tar  or  very  thick  molasses.  This 
has  to  be  sprayed  or  pulverized,  either  by  jets  of  air  or  steam,  for  use  in 
the  furnaces. 

2d.  The  pulverizers  form  the  principal  element  in  the  whole  arrange- 
ment for  burning  liquid  fuel,  and  many  kinds  have  been  used  or  tried,  or 
simply  patented.  The  Russian  pulverizers  are  all  worked  by  steam,  and 
they  appear  to  be  the  best,  because  a  pulverizer  using  steam  may  be 
worked  well  with  air,  or  any  other  suitable  gaseous  fluid  with  little  or  no 
alteration. 

3d.  Where  pulverizers  are^ot  used  a  compressor  for  forcing  the  air  is 
employed.  Its  great  weight  and  space  occupied  forms  a  very  serious  ob- 
jection to  the  compressor. 

4th.  That  the  use  of  liquid  fuel  by  the  Russians  is  almost  confined  to 
the  Volga  region  and  the  Caspian  Sea.  There  the  wood  is  scarce  and  costly 
and  also  very  bulky.  Coal  is  extremely  expensive.  One  very  remarkable 
fact  in  connection  with  the  use  of  liquid  fuel  on  Russian  vessels  is  that  the 
difficulty  with  marine  boilers  of  making  up  the  waste  of  steam  entailed  by 

00    


the  pulverizers  does  not  exist  for  the  steamers  running  along  the  Volga 
River.  It  is  lessened,  in  case  of  the  sea  steamers,  by  the  fact  that  the 
great  bulk  of  the  Caspian  trade  is  from  Baku  and  other  ports  south  to  As- 
trakhan, where  fresh  water  is  available  in  abundance,  and  can  be  stored  by 
the  steamers  both  for  outward  and  homeward  passages. 

5th.  Italy,  on  account  of  its  position  and  of  its  deficiency  of  coal,  was 
naturally  interested  in  the  matter.  And  that  country,  which  even  our 
naval  experts  have,  in  years  past,  mistakenly  reported  as  having  adopted 
this  fuel  for  its  war  vessels,  confines  the  practice  to  a  few  torpedo  boats. 
For  their  large  vessels  they  do  not  contemplate  the  regular  use  of  liquid 
fuel.  Pulverizers,  however,  are  fitted  in  order  that  they  may  be  held  in 
readiness  for  the  same  object  as  forced  draft. 

6th.  The  system  of  mixing  petroleum  spray  with  the  coal  seems  to  be 
on  the  increase  In  the  French  and  Italian  navies,  and  furnishes  a  ready 
means  of  rapidly  increasing  the  steam  pressure  and  speed,  above  that  of 
the  natural  draft. 

7th.  That  the  measure  of  success  in  the  burning  of  liquid  fuel  will 
depend  upon  the  efficiency  and  durability  of  the  pulverizer.  Less  than 
three  years  ago  the  Italians  believed  that  they  had  solved  this  question  for 
naval  purposes  by  the  invention  of  the  Curriberti  atomizer.  They  are  now 
rather  doubtful  about  this  sprinkler  satisfying  all  their  wants.  The  French, 
who  are  following  them  more  closely  than  any  other  nation,  are  about  to 
use  their  own  pulverizers. 

There  is  no  one  who  has  made  a  more  protracted  and  scientific  inves- 
tigation of  its  capabilities  than  Mr.  Isherwood,  and  this  is  the  result  of  his 
observations  on  liquid  fuel  as  a  combustible  for  naval  purposes.  In  sum- 
marizing the  work  of  the  Experimental  Board,  of  which  he  was  president, 
he  writes: 

"The  experiments  in  question  embrace  those  made  with  Col.  Foote's 
apparatus  at  the  Charleston  Navy  Yard,  and  those  made  with  other  appa- 
ratus on  different  boilers  in  the  New  York  Navy  Yard,  all  of  them,  I  believe, 
of  considerable  value,  but  never  reported  in  full  with  the  exception  of  one 
made  about  ten  years  ago,  and  which  is  now  on  the  files  of  the  Bureau  of 
Steam  Engineering.  In  every  case  the  patentees  abandoned  the  trials  before 
they  were  completed,  owing  to  the  failure  of  their  apparatus. 

"The  liquid  oil  has,  in  all  cases,  to  be  transformed  into  oil  gas  before 
it  can  be  burned.  This  transformation  can  be  made  by  the  direct  applica- 
tion externally  of  heat  to  the  liquid,  but  the  temperature  of  the  oil  on 
the  vaporizing  surface  is  higher  than  the  temperature  required  to  de- 
compose it,  the  result  being  deposition  of  solid  carbon  in  the  form  of  coke 
which  soon  fills  the  vaporizing  vessels  and  renders  them  useless.  This 
coke  is  frequently  so  hard  that  cold  chisels  can  scarcely  detach  it,  and  if 
thrown  into  a  fire  even  in  small  fragments,  it  burns  with  excessive  slow- 
ness, like  graphite.  Whenever  the  vaporizing  vessel  is  subjected  to  a  high 
temperature  like  that  of  a  boiler  furnace,  the  decomposition  of  the  oil  and 
deposition  of  coke  go  rapidly  on,  so  that  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours  any 
vessel  of  practical  size  is  filled  by  it.  All  apparatus  exposed  to  anything 
like  furnace  or  flame  temperature  will  inevitably  fail  from  these  causes  in 
the  future  as  they  have  in  the  past.  To  make  trials  with  such  devices  will 

—  39  — 


merely  serve  to  confirm  this  fact.  The  smaller  the  vaporization  vessel,  and 
the  higher  the  temperature  to  which'  it  is  exposed,  the  more  quickly  will  it 
fail." 

INSTALLATION  OF  THE  SYSTEM  AT  THE  CHICAGO  EXPOSITION. 

At  the  World's  Fair  at  Chicago  the  boilers  which  furnished  the  steam 
for  driving  the  machinery  were  all  fed  with  crude  oil.  The  conditions  there 
were,  of  course,  quite  different  from  what  would  prevail  aboard  ship,  but 
they  were  all  in  favor  of  a  more  successful  burning  of  the  liquid  fuel.  Lake 
Michigan  with  its  supply  of  fresh  water  was  near.  There  was  no  question 
of  either  weights  or  space  occupied  to  be  taken  into  consideration.  The 
seven  representative  boiler  firms  which  were  pitted  against  each  other  sent 
excellent  men  to  look  out  for  their  respective  plants.  The  piping  was  ar- 
ranged in  the  most  efficient  manner,  it  not  being  necessary  to  make  extra 
bends  or  angles  in  order  that  it  would  clear  a  hatch  or  opening,  as  might 
occur  on  board  ship.  And  yet  an  official  report  says,  "The  quantity  of  pe- 
troleum used  for  firing  the  main  boiler  plant  at  the  World's  Columbian  Ex- 
position amounted  to  upwards  of  31,000  tons,  and  the  work  done  is  stated 
to  have  totalled  32,316,000  horse  power  hours.  This  makes  the  consump- 
tion of  oil  about  2.1  pounds  per  horse  power  hour."  This  report  would 
tend  to  dispose  of  some  of  the  claims  of  the  thermal  efficiency  of  liquid 
fuel.  Is  it  possible  that  the  commercial  article  is  not  so  rich  in  hydrogen  as 
that  furnished  for  experimental  purposes? 

From  time  to  time  we  hear  of  the  success  attained  by  one  of  the  Italian 
cruisers  on  a  short  run  with  this  fuel.  A  careful  investigation  invariably 
shows,  that  when  oil  was  used  in  connection  with  coal,  the  speed  over  that 
of  natural  draft  was  increased.  There  is  not  one  single  instance  on  record 
where  the  burning  of  liquid  fuel,  either  alone  or  in  combination  with  coal, 
developed  the  speed  of  horse  power  that  was  secured  with  coal  under  forced 
draft. 

For  the  past  year,  the  Austrians  have  been  experimenting  with  it.  It 
is  said  that  for  every  pound  of  residuum  they  were  able  to  burn,  seven - 
tenths  of  a  pound  of  water  in  the  form  of  steam  was  required  to  spray  it. 
They  have  not  yet  been  convinced  of  its  merits  for  naval  purposes,  for  not 
a  single  boat  in  the  Austrian  service  has  yet  been  fitted  permanently  with 
atomizers  for  burning  this  fuel. 

A  careful  reading  of  the  professional  papers  in  regard  to  the  success  of 
the  French  with  this  combustible  furnishes  one  with  such  information  as 
the  following:  "The  question  is  altogether  in  a  state  of  tentative  experi- 
ment, and  the  fuel  will  have  to  be  tried  in  different  boilers  and  under  se- 
vere conditions  before  adoption  in  large  vessels."  Of  another  vessel  it  is 
written:  "The  results  are  said  to  be  good,  but  not  definite."  Concerning 
three  torpedo  boats  it  is  written:  "The  experiments  have  been  more  or  less 
successful." 

Capt.  A.  M.  Hunt,  formerly  of  the  U.  S.  N.,  read  an  exhaustive  paper 
before  the  Technical  Society  of  the  Pacific  Coast,  October  5th,  1894,  on  the 
results  obtained  from  oil  at  the  Mid-Winter  Fair,  from  which  the  following 
extracts  are  taken : 

A  certain  amount  of  eye  training  is  necessary  to  judge  whether  or  not 
the  oil  is  being  burned  so  as  to  give  the  maximum  heating  effect.  With 

—  41  — 


proper  manipulation  of  the  burner,  it  being  of  proper  design,  and  a  careful 
regulation  of  the  air,  an  almost  flameless  combustion  can  be  obtained.  The 
furnace  should  never  be  filled  with  an  opaque,  luminous  flame,  although 
many  so-called  practical  oil  men  claim  that  such  a  combustion  will  give  the 
best  results  as  regards  evaporation. 

The  best  results  at  the  Fair  were  always  obtained  by  so  manipulating 
the  burner,  with  the  air  full  on,  as  to  get  a  blue,  Bunsen- burner- like  flame, 
and  then  shutting  off  steam  and  air  until  a  tinge  of  luminosity  began  to  show, 
chasing  through  the  furnace  in  waves.  Under  such  conditions  the  carbon 
in  the  oil  is  being  entirely  consumed,  and  the  air  supply  is  being  limited 
just  to  the  point  necessary  for  its  consumption.  Luminosity  indicates  the 
presence  of  unconsumed  carbon,  and  consequent  failure  to  obtain  the  full 
heating  effect.  After  the  furnace  once  becomes  thoroughly  heated  there 
should  be  absolutely  no  evidence  of  smoke  issuing  from  the  chimney. 

The  flame  must  not  be  allowed  to  impinge  directly  against  the  iron  of  a 
boiler.  Overheating  of  the  metal  is  apt  to  be  the  result.  If  a  solid  particle 
or  drop  of  the  oil  strikes  the  comparatively  cold  metal  the  volatile  matter  is 
driven  off  and  a  carbon  deposit  left,  which,  becoming  incandescent,  and 
being  in  direct  contact  with  the  iron,  burns  it. 

At  the  Mid- Winter  Fair  there  was  a  chance  to  determine  the  efficiency  of 
oil  as  fuel,  and  the  results  of  several  of  the  tests  conducted  by  Mr.  E.  C. 
Meier,  assistant  in  charge  of  the  boiler  plant,  and  the  author,  are  appended. 
In  these  tests  both  the  feed  water  and  the  oil  were  measured  by  Worthington 
meters,  and  while  meter  tests  are  always  regarded  with  great  suspicion  by 
engineers,  these  tests  were  so  conducted  as  to  be  quite  reliable. 

Before  any  tests  were  made  the  feed  water  meter  was  thoroughly  cali- 
brated by  weighing  the  water  passed  through  it.  At  first  it  was  found  im- 
possible to  get  concordant  results  from  different  sets  of  weighings,  especially 
when  the  temperature  of  the  feed  water  was  high.  A  pressure  gauge  was 
finally  placed  on  the  boiler  side  of  the  meter,  and  the  discharge  valve  pass- 
ing water  into  the  weighing  barrels,  set  so  as  to  maintain  on  the  meter  the 
ordinary  boiler  pressure,  and  the  pump  run  at  a  speed  which  furnished  feed 
water  at  the  rate  required  for  the  boilers  under  test.  It  was  found,  after  so 
doing,  that  the  results  of  different  sets  of  calibrations  did  not  vary  more  than 
two-tenths  of  a  pound  per  cubic  foot  registered.  This  was  as  close  as  the 
limit  of  accuracy  of  the  scales. 

The  oil  meter  was  calibrated  in  the  same  manner.  This  meter  was 
provided  with  small  vents  to  enable  any  gas  which  might  collect  at  the  top 
of  meter  chambers  to  be  removed.  Great  care  was  taken  to  avoid  any 
chance  for  errors.  The  blow  lines  were  blanked,  and  feed  valves  so  ar- 
ranged that  no  feed  water  could  pass  into  boilers  not  in  use. 

The  thermometers  and  steam  gauges  used  were  corrected  by  standards. 
The  only  tests  for  dryness  of  the  steam  were  made  with  an  ordinary  barrel 
calorimeter,  such  as  Thurston  describes,  and  the  results  showed  the  steam 
to  be  practically  dry. 

The  average  result  of  all  the  tests  made  was  14.2  pounds  of  water 
evaporated  from  and  at  212  degrees  Fahrenheit  per  pound  of  oil,  and  the 
highest  evaporation  of  any  test  is  15.13  pounds  to  one. 

It  is  a  very  common  thing  to  hear  oil  men  say  that  they  have  obtained 

—  42  — 


an  evaporation  of  17  and  even  18  pounds  of  water  per  pound  of  oil,  and 
you  will  find  recorded  the  results  of  tests  showing  such  evaporations,  at- 
tested by  all  the  details  of  columns  of  figures  and  calculations.  There  is 
suspicion  that  the  oil  used  in  such  tests  must  have  been  thinned  down  with 
liquified  hydrogen,  or  that  the  experimenter  deceived  himself,  willfully  or 
otherwise. 

The  theoretical  evaporation  of  oil  is  about  20.7  pounds  to  one.  An 
evaporation  of  18  to  one  would  indicate  a  boiler  efficiency  of  about  87  per 
cent,  and  assuming  a  furnace  temperature  of  2,400  degrees  Fahrenheit, 
the  temperature  of  the  issuing  gases  would  be  312  degrees.  If  the  temper- 
ature of  the  issuing  gases  was  450  degrees,  as  would  be  more  probable,  the 
furnace  temperature  would  be  3,461  degrees,  rather  too  high  for  comfort. 

The  results  of  certain  tests  made  by  the  Edison  Light  and  Power  Com- 
pany, of  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  were  as  follows: 

Evaporation  with  California  oil 13.1    pounds  to  1 

"      Peru  oil  12.1        "        to  1 

"      White  Ash  coal 6.68      "        to  1 

The  California  oil  used  weighed  320  pounds  to  the  barrel.  The  Peru 
oil  used  weighed  294  pounds  to  the  barrel. 

1  pound  of  California  oil  =  1.96  pounds  of  coai. 
1  pound  of  Peru  oil          =1.81  pounds  of  coal. 

Accepting  the  results  at  the  Mid-Winter  Fair,  an  evaporation  of  15  to  1 
can  be  obtained  with  oil,  using  the  Heine  boilers. 

In  January,  1895,  a  series  of  tests  were  made  with  crude  oil  on  Heine 
boilers  at  the  Harrison  Street  station  of  the  Chicago  Edison  Company,  with 
the  following  average  results: 

Size  of  boiler 500 

Lbs.  of  water  per  Ib.  oil  from  and  at  212° 14.57 

H.  P.  developed 593 

Percent,  over  rating 18.6 


For  fuel  purposes  two  kinds  of  oil  are  used,  crude  petroleum,  usually 
from  Lima,  O.,  and  residuum  after  distilling  off  the  lighter  oils. 

The  Lima  crude  petroleum  oil  comes  to  this  (St.  Louis)  market  in  tank  cars 
holding  6000  gallons.  The  price  is  1.8  cents  per  gallon,  to  which  must  be  added 
.$5.00  per  car  for  switching,  etc.  Even  under  favorable  conditions,  there- 
fore, as  to  location  of  boiler  plant,  the  cost  of  this  oil  delivered  to  the  boiler 
will  be  at  least  2  cents  per  gallon.  A  gallon  of  this  oil  weighs  6.9  Ibs.  The 
theoretical  heat  value  of  this  oil  is  about  20,000  heats  units,  equivalent  to  a 
theoretical  evaporation  of  20.7  Ibs.  of  water.  Assuming  an  efficiency  of  80 
per  cent.,  the  evaporation  in  practice  would  be  16.56  Ibs.  of  water  per  pound 
of  oil.  The  cost  of  evaporating  1000  Ibs.  of  water  would  therefore  be  17.54 
cents.  With  a  bituminous  coal  giving  an  evaporation  in  practice  of  5  Ibs.  of 
water  per  pound  of  coal  and  costing  $1 .25  per  ton,  the  same  work  could  be 
done  for  12.5  cents,  a  difference  in  favor  of  the  coal  of  40.32  per  cent.  It 
will  be  observed  also  that  the  conditions  assumed  in  this  calculation  are 
especially  favorable  to  the  oil. 

The  fuel  oil  or  residuum  weighs  about  7.3  Ibs.  per  gallon,  and  has  a 
calorific  power  of  16,880,  or  a  theoretical  evaporation  of  17.47  Ibs.  water 


per  pound  of  oil.  At  3  cents  a  gallon  and  under  the  conditions  assumed 
above  the  cost  of  evaporating  1000  Ibs.  of  water  would  be  29.28  cents  or  134 
per  cent,  more  than  when  using  the  coal.  W.  B.  P. 

From  these  varying  statements  it  is  clear  that  local  conditions  must  de- 
cide when  liquid  fuel  can  be  used  to  advantage. — F.  i.  at  the  World's  Col- 
umbian Exposition  at  Chicago,  more  than  25,000  H.  P.  of  boilers  are  being 
run  by  fuel  oil  piped  there  from  Lima,  O.  Aside  from  the  saving  in  dust, 
noise,  soot  and  ashes — made  apparent  by  the  white  uniforms  of  the  stokers 
and  the  white  boiler  fronts — it  would  be  an  impossibility  to  bring  in  coal  and 
carry  off  ashes  for  this  huge  plant  without  seriously  interfering  with  the 
passenger  traffic.  It  would  require  eighty  cars  for  coal  and  twenty  for  ashes 
daily.  E.  D.  M. 


300  H.  P.  Heine  Boiler  being  moved. 


FUEL  GAS. 

Gaseous  Fuel  has  so  many  apparent  practical  advantages  over  any  other 
form  of  fuel,  that  it  may  be  properly  regarded  as  the  ideal  fuel.  Near  Pitts- 
burgh, and  in  some  favored  districts  of  Indiana,  Natural  Gas  has  been  found 
in  such  quantities  that — for  some  years  at  least — immense  manufacturing  in- 
dustries have  been  based  on  it.  Manufacturers  who  have  once  realized  its 
advantages  are  loth  to  surrender  them  and  would  gladly  welcome  some  kind 
of  artificial  gas  to  take  its  place — if  this  can  be  made  cheap  enough  to  com- 
pete with  the  local  coal.  Inventors  have  been  prolific  of  processes  and  de- 
vices to  fill  this  demand. 

As  there  are  certain  fixed  and  well  defined  conditions  on  which  the  fuel 
value  of  such  gases  depends,  we  give  below  extracts  from  papers  on  the 
subject  by  well  known  experts,  which  will  enable  the  careful  engineer  to  es- 
timate in  each  particular  case  pretty  closely  whether  gas  may  be  economi- 
cally substituted  for  coal. 

—  44  — 


Mr.  Emerson  McMillin,  in  October,  1887,  made  an  exhaustive  investi- 
gation of  the  subject  of  fuel  gas  fr6m  which  we  extract  the  following : 

"The  relative  calorific  value  of  the  various  gases  now  in  use  for  heat- 
ing and  for  illumination  have  been  frequently  published,  yet,  in  the  discus- 
sion of  this  subject  we  cannot  well  avoid  a  reproduction  of  some  of  the 
figures. 

"  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  tables  of  this  character  have  been  so 
often  published,  we  are  all  more  or  less  confused  occasionally  by  seeing 
statements  made  that  make  the  comparison  totally  different  from  our  pre- 
conceived ideas  as  to  their  relative  calorific  values. 

"  This  confusion  occurs  from  the  fact  that  at  one  time  we  see  the  com- 
parison of  the  gases  made  by  weight,  and  at  another  time  the  comparison  is 
made  by  volume.  We  present  here  the  comparison  made  both  by  weight 
and  by  volume,  and  shall  use  natural  gas  as  the  unit  of  value  in  both  com- 
parisons : 

TABLE  No.  21. 
Relative  Values. 

By  Weight.  By  Volume. 

Natural   gas 1,000  1,000 

Coal  gas 949  666 

Water   gas 292  292 

Producer   gas 76.5  130 

"  The  water  gas  rated  in  the  above  table — as  you  will  understand — is 
the  gas  obtained  in  the  decomposition  of  steam  by  incandescent  carbon,  and 
does  not  attempt  to  fix  the  calorific  value  of  illuminating  water  gas,  which 
may  be  carbureted  so  as  to  exceed,  when  compared  by  volume,  the  value  of 
coal  gas. 

TABLE  No.  22. 
Composition  of  Gases. 

VOLUME. 
Natural  Gas.  Coal  Gas.  Water  Gas.  Producer  Gas. 

Hydrogen 2.18  46.00  45.00  6.00 

Marsh  gas—               92.60  40.00  2.00  3.00 

Carbonic  oxide 0.50  6.00  45.00  23.50 

Olefiant  gas-  0.31  4.00  0.00  0.00 

Carbonic  acid 0.26  0.50  4.00  1.50 

Nitrogea ___  3.61  1.50  2.00  65.00 

Oxygen 0.34  0.50  0.50  0.00 

Water  vapor 0.00  1.50  1.50  1.00 

Sulphydric  acid 0.20 


10000          100.00        100.00          100.00 
—  45  — 


DUO. 


1 )  ^ 

1  I 

2  O 

ou 


TABLE  No.  23. 

Composition  of  Gases. 

WEIGHT. 

Natural  Gas.  Coal  Gas.  Water  Gas.  Producer  Gas. 

Hydrogen —     0.268  8.21  5.431  0.458 

Marsh  gas-^                  -  90.383  57.20  1.931  1.831 

Carbonic  oxide 0.857  15.02  76.041  25.095 

Olefiant  gas 0.531  10.01  0.000  0.000 

Carbonic  acid 0.700  1.97  10.622  2.517 

Nitrogen--                            6.178  3.75  3.380  69.413 

Oxygen-.                            0.666  1.43  0.965  0.000 

Water  vapor--                     0000  2.41             1.630  0.686 

Sulphydric  acid 0.417 


100.000       100.000         100.000         100.000 

"  Some  explanations  of  these  analyses  are  necessary.  The  natural  gas 
is  that  of  Findlay,  O.  The  coal  gas  is  probably  an  average  sample  of  coal 
gas,  purified  for  use  as  an  illuminant.  The  water  gas  is  that  of  a  sample  of 
gas  made  for  heating,  and  consequently  not  purified,  hence  the  larger  per 
cent,  of  CO2  that  it  contains. 

"Since  calculating  the  tables  used  in  this  paper,  I  am  satisfied  that  the 
sample  of  water  gas  is  not  an  average  one.  The  CO  is  too  high,  and  H  is 
too  low.  Were  proper  corrections  made  in  this  respect,  it  would  increase  the 
value  in  heat  units  of  a  pound,  but  not  materially  change  the  value  when 
volume  is  considered,  and  as  that  is  the  way  in  which  gases  are  sold,  the 
tables  will  not  be  recalculated. 

"  The  producer  gas  is  that  of  an  average  sample  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Steel  Works,  made  from  anthracite,  and  is  not  of  so  high  grade  as  would  be 
that  made  from  soft  coal. 

"The  natural  gas  excels,  as  shown  in  Table  21,  because  of  the  large  per 
cent,  of  marsh  gas.  In  no  other  form,  in  the  gases  mentioned,  do  we  get  so 
much  hydrogen  in  a  given  volume  of  gas. 

"  It  is  the  large  per  cent,  of  hydrogen  in  the  coal  gas  that  makes  it  so 
nearly  equivalent  to  the  natural  gas  in  a  given  weight,  but  much  of  the  hy- 
drogen in  coal  gas  being  free,  makes  it  fall  far  short  of  natural  gas  in  calorific 
value  per  unit  of  volume. 

"A  further  comparison  of  the  value  of  the  several  gases  named  may  be 
made  by  showing  the  quantity  of  water  that  would  be  evaporated  by  1000 
feet  of  each  kind  of  gas,  allowing  an  excess  of  20  per  cent,  of  air,  and 
permitting  the  resultant  gases  to  escape  at  a  temperature  of  500  degrees. 
This  sort  of  comparison  probably  has  more  practical  value  than  either  of  the 
others  that  have  been  previously  given.  We  will  assume  that  the  air  for 
combustion  is  entering  at  a  temperature  of  60  degrees. 

TABLE  No.  24. 
Water  Evaporation. 

Natural  Gas.  Coal  Gas.          Water  Gas.        Producer  Gas 

Cubic  feet  gas 1000  1000  1000  1000 

Pounds  water 893  591  202  115 

—  47  — 


"  The  theoretical  temperature  that  may  be  produced  by  these  several 
gases  does  not  differ  greatly  as  between  the  three  first-named.  The  pro- 
ducer gas  falls  about  25  per  cent,  below  the  others,  giving  a  temperature  of 
only  3441°  F. 

"  Water  gas  leads  in  this  respect,  with  a  temperature  of  4850°. 

"A  comparison  of  the  resultant  products  of  combustion  also  shows  water 
gas  to  possess  merit  over  either  natural  or  coal  gas,  when  the  combustion  of 
equal  quantities — say  1000  feet — is  considered.  An  excess  of  20  per  cent, 
of  air  is  calculated  in  the  following  table  : 

TABLE  No.  25. 
Resultant  Gases  of  Combustion. 

Natural  Coal  Water  Producer 

Quantity— 1000  ft.  Gas.  Gas  Gas.  Gas. 

Weight  of  gas  before  combustion,  Ibs 45.60  32.00  45.60  77.50 

Steam 94.25  69.718  25.104  6.92 

Carbonic  acid 119.59  68.586  61.754  36.45 

Sulphuric  acid 0.36      

Nitrogen 664.96  427.222  170.958  126.57 

Total  weight  after  combustion 879.16  565.526  257.816  169.94 

Pounds  oxygen  for  combination 167.46  107.961  43.149  19.67 

"  You  will  observe,  by  the  following  table,  that,  with  the  exception  of 
producer  gas,  each  kind  gives  off  nearly  one  pound  of  waste  gases  for  each 
pound  of  water  evaporated.  This  quantity  includes  20  per  cent,  excess  of  air: 

TABLE  No.  26. 

Weights  of  Water  Evaporated  and  Resultant  Gases. 

Natural  Coal  Water  Producer 

Gas.  Gas.  Gas.  Gas. 

Weight  of  water  evaporated 893.25  591.000          262.000        115.100 

Weight  of  gases  after  combustion ---879. 16  565.526          257.816        169.945 

"  The  vitiation  of  the  atmosphere  per  unit  of  value  in  water  evaporation 
is  practically  the  same  in  water  gas  as  in  natural  gas. 

"  However,  the  excess  of  oxygen  does  no  harm,  and  the  steam  and 
nitrogen  can  not  be  regarded  as  very  objectional  products.  The  gas  that 
robs  the  air  permanently  of  the  most  oxygen,  and  produces  the  greatest 
quantity  of  carbonic  acid  per  unit  of  work,  must  be  classed  as  the  most 
objectionable  from  a  sanitary  standpoint. 

TABLE  No.  27. 
Oxygen  Absorbed  and  Carbonic  Acid  Produced. 

In  Combustion.  Natural          Coal  Water         Producer 

Gas.  Gas.  Gas.  Gas. 

Pounds  of  oxygen  absorbed  per  100  Ibs.  water 

evaporated 18.75  18.27  16.47  17.96 

Pounds  of  COa  produced  per  100  Ibs.  water 

evaporated 13.40  11.60  23.57  31.70 

Oxygen  absorbed  plus  COa  produced 32.15  29.87  40.04  49.66 

"Here,  then,  it  is  shown  that  if  pollution  by  carbonic  acid  and  the 
impoverishment  by  the  absorption  of  oxygen  are  equally  deleterious  to  the 
atmosphere,  coal  gas  stands  at  the  head  as  being  the  least  objectionable." 

Mr.  McMillin  then  goes  into  an  elaborate  calculation  of  a  mixture  of 
gases,  which  would  combine  the  good  qualities  of  the  three  artificial  gases 
compared,  which  he  finds  to  be  "in  per  cent.,  coal  gas  20.35,  water  gas 
32.17,  producer  gas  47.48." 

—  48  — 


After  calculating  the  cost  of  such  gas,  he  proceeds  : 

"Here  we  may  note  some  features,  that  to  my  mind  are  interesting; 
that  is,  the  cost  of  various  gases  per  1,000,000  units  of  heat  which  they  are 
theoretically  capable  of  producing. 

"  In  working  out  these  figures  I  put  wages,  repairs  and  incidentals  and 
the  cost  of  the  ton  of  good  gas  coal  at  $2.00,  arid  a  ton  of  hard  coal  or  coke 
at  the  same  price,  and  the  quantities  of  production  as  follows:  Coal  gas 
from  soft  coal,  10,000  feet ;  water  gas  from  hard  coal,  40,000  feet;  and  pro- 
ducer gas,  150,000  feet. 

TABLE  No.  28. 
Cost  per  1,000,000  Units  of  Heat. 

Coal  gas  _.     -.734,976  units,  costing  20.00  cents  =  27.21  cents  per  mill. 

Water  gas 322,346  units,  costing  10.88  cents  =  33.75  cents  per  mill. 

Producer  gas-  -  -117,000  units,  costing    2.58  cents  =  22.05  cents  per  mill. 
Our  mixture- --323, 115  units,  costing    7.88  cents  ==  24.39  cents  per  mill. 

"  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  after  all  coal  gas  costs  but  11.6  per  cent, 
more  per  unit  of  heat  than  the  mixture  that  we  have  worked  out,  while 
water  gas,  per  unit  of  heat,  costs  38.38  per  cent,  more  than  the  mixed 
product." 

After  a  discussion  of  methods  of  delivery  and  the  various  uses  for  the 
fuel  gas,  he  concludes  : 

"The  demand  for  fuel  gas,  like  the  demand  for  electric  light,  has  come 
to  stay.  It  will  not  down.  Scientific  investigators,  as  well  as  the  public, 
insist  that  there  ought  to  be,  and  must  be,  a  change  in  the  mode  of  domestic 
and  industrial  heating.  Our  present  systems  are  not  in  keeping  with  the 
progress  of  the  nineteenth  century." 

Professor  D.  S.  Jacobus — Oct. ,  1888 — says :  "  It  is  proposed  to  give  an 
estimate  of  the  cost  at  which  carbureted  and  uncarbureted  water  gas  will 
have  to  be  sold  in  order  to  compete  successfully  for  steam  boiler  use  with 
anthracite  coal. 

"  The  following  are  analyses  of  the  gas  direct  from  the  generator,  and 
of  the  same  after  it  has  been  carbureted  for  illuminating  purposes  : 

TABLE  No.  29. 
Analyses  of  Water  Gas. 

Percent  by  Volumes. 

I.  II. 

Uncarbureted.  Carbureted. 

Nitrogen 4.69  2.5 

Carbonic  acid 3.47  .3 

Ethylene .0  12.5 

Oxygen .0  .2 

Benzole  vapor .0  1.5 

Carbonic  oxide 36.80  29.0 

Marshgas 2.16  24.0 

Hydrogen 52.88  30.0 

100.00  100.00 

—  49  — 


"Experiments  were  made  to  verify  the  ratio  between  the  heats  of  com- 
bustion of  the  gas  before  and  after  being  carbureted,  by  determining  the 
time  and  quantity  of  gas  required  to  evaporate  a  given  weight  of  water  con- 
tained in  an  open  vessel,  heating  by  means  of  a  gas  stove.  The  burner  of 
the  stove  used  for  burning  the  carbureted  gas  caused  air  to  be  mingled  with 
the  gas  before  the  latter  was  burned,  thus  producing  a  colorless  flame.  For 
the  uncarbureted  gas,  the  burner  was  of  the  Argand  pattern,  and  the  air 
was  not  mingled  with  the  gas  before  it  was  burned.  The  results  of  the  tests 
are  given  in  the  following  table : 

TABLE  No.  so. 


•0 
4) 

rt 

C   41 
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c 

i_    i 

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1| 

64 

M        ^ 
1        | 

bi 

C 

la 

E 

a> 

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i-       O 

—     "c 

Q. 

|H 

§2 

E 

"fl5    • 

2  ^rt 

(N      <- 

al 

i 

2  c 
9 

.c  .5 

•=  5 

1 

15    5 
^ 

„       C 
0]       3 

• 

£ 

*.  E 

(/)    rtj 

o  ® 

o  S* 

0 

•o     E 

GAS 

•2- 

o 

ij 

b£  flj 

•a  bj 

OJ    ul 

^ 

O        .Q 

c     a       . 

«j 

<u  o. 

•*-   ^ 

j;  c 

"2    ^ 

3 

—  *       rr- 

«  "3 

•j 

3 

»-   X 

2  * 

O  M— 

O 

5  '5 

.?  >•« 

^ 

§    -5 

E    -     E 

o 

2 

15 

01 

2  r-  • 
uu-S 

£  « 

3  Jji 

o-S 

o-0 

o"  aJ  •*- 

-"S 

0      § 

E     * 

2    >.   3 

<C      A     A 

u 

o. 

cx~  ^2 

!A  <-* 

4)  — 

E. 

^ 

2 

ai 

E 

01 

H 

a" 

H 

n 

1  si 

§1 

Actual. 

Per  1000  cu. 

H 

z 

ft.  gas. 

Lbs. 

Deg.  F. 

Deg.  F. 

Inches. 

Min. 

Min. 

Cu.  ft. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Uncarbureted 

4 

56 

61 

4 

12 

79  i 

36.1 

4.64 

128.5 

Uncarbureted  

4 

59 

62 

4 

HI 

79^ 

34.8 

4.64 

133.3 

Carbureted 

4 

56 

61 

5i 

8i 

69 

19.4 

4.64 

239.2 

Carbureted 

4 

59 

62 

51 

— 

10 

73^ 

18.2 

4.64 

254.9 

Carbureted 

4 

68 

66 

41 

81 

63 

19.8 

4.60 

232.3 

v-^'* 

"From  this  table  we  obtain  an  average  evaporation,  per  1000  cubic 
feet  of  uncarbureted  gas,  of  130.9  Ibs.  of  water  from  the  temperature  of 
212°  and  at  atmospheric  pressure,  and  for  the  carbureted  gas  an  average  of 
242.1  Ibs.  That  is,  the  experiments  tend  to  show  that  the  ratio  of  the 
calorific  power  of  the  uncarbureted  to  that  of  the  carbureted  gas,  by  volume, 


is 


J309 
242.1 


=  0.54. 


"The  volume  of  one  pound  of  air  at  62°  F.  is  13.14  cubic  feet,  hence 
the  calorific  power  of  the  gases  per  cubic  foot  should  be  : 

7373X0.505  =  283.3   H.    U. 


Uncarbureted 
Carbureted 


13.14 


=640.5  H.  U. 


"  One  pound  of  good  Lackawanna  coal  has  a  calorific  power  of  13000 
heat  units.  The  number  of  cubic  feet  of  gas  required  to  produce  the  same 
heating  effect  as  is  produced  in  burning  one  ton  of  coal  will  therefore  be : 

Uncarbureted  gas  13°^X32000  =  91780. 
Carbureted  gas  13000x2000  =  40599. 

640.5 

"The  efficiency  of  a  boiler  will  be  about  the  same  when  burning  gas 
for  fuel  as  when  coal  is  used.  (?)  If,  therefore,  we  disregard  the  difference 
in  the  cost  of  attendance,  in  favor  of  using  gaseous  fuel,  40590  cubic  feet  of 
carbureted,  or  91780  cubic  feet  of  uncarbureted  gas,  must  be  sold  for  the 
same  price  as  one  (short)  ton  of  coal,  in  order  to  successfully  compete  with 
the  latter  for  use  under  steam  boilers. 


-50  — 


"We  will  estimate  the  probable  excess  of  cost  involved  in  firing  with 
coal  above  that  of  gas-firing.  In  burning  natural  gas,  it  has  been  found  that 
one  man  is  able  to  attend  to  boilers  aggregating  1500  horse-power,  whereas, 
if  coal  is  used,  200  horse-power  will  be  a  fair  figure.  It  therefore  requires, 
in  the  case  of  large  plants,  only  about  T2F  as  much  labor  to  fire  with  gas  as 
is  involved  in  firing  with  coal.  If  the  wages  of  firemen  are  $2.50  per  day  of 
twelve  hours,  the  cost  of  firing  one  ton  of  coal  in  boilers  that  require  four 
pounds  of  coal  per  boiler  horse-power  per  hour,  will  be 

2.5x2000 

—  dollars  =  52.1  cents. 
12X200X4 

The  cost  of  firing  with  gas  would  be  T2^  of  this  amount  so  that  the  extra 
cost  of  firing  with  coal  would  equal  if  times  52.1  equal  45  cents.  To  make 
a  liberal  allowance  in  favor  of  the  gaseous  fuel  we  will  .assume  that  the 
extra  labor  of  firing  each  ton  of  coal  costs  50  cents. 

"  The  following  table  contains  the  prices  at  which  the  gas  must  be  sold 
per  1000  cubic  feet  in  order  to  be  as  cheap  as  coal  for  boiler  use  ;  first,  dis- 
regarding the  difference  in  the  tost  of  attendance,  and  secondly,  assuming 
that  the  extra  cost  of  firing  with  coal  is  50  cents  per  ton. 

TABLE  No.  31. 
Cost  of  Burning  Water  Gas. 


PRICE  OF  GAS   PER  1000  CUBIC  FEET. 


Cost  of  Coal  Delivered  to 

Not  Including  Difference  in 

Including  Difference  in 

Cost  of  Attendance. 

Cost  of  Attendance. 

Per 

Ton  of  2000  Lbs. 

Carbureted. 

Uncarbureted. 

Carbureted. 

Uncarbureted. 

$6.00 

14.8  cts. 

6.5  cts. 

16.0  cts. 

7.1  cts. 

5.00 

12.3  cts. 

5.4  cts. 

13.6  cts. 

6.0  cts. 

4.00 

9.9  cts. 

4.4  cts. 

11.1  cts. 

4.9  cts. 

3.00 

7.4  cts. 

3.3  cts. 

8.6  cts. 

3.8  cts. 

2.00 

4.9  cts. 

2.2   cts. 

6.2  cts. 

2.7  cts. 

1.00 

2.5  cts. 

1.1   cts. 

3.7  cts. 

1.6  cts. 

"As  the  cost  of  manufacturing  the  Uncarbureted  gas,  by  the  present 
processes,  not  including  interest  on  capital  invested,  is  from  10  to  20  cents 
per  1000  cubic  feet,  it  does  not  appear  possible  to  employ  it  economically 
for  a  boiler  fuel,  until  considerable  reduction  in  cost  of  production  shall  have 
been  made." 

Professor  Wm.  B.  Potter,  March,  1892,  says: 

"  The  convenience  and  economy  attending  the  use  of  natural  gas  in  a 
number  of  localities  in  this  country  have  led  many  people  to  believe  that 
fuel  gas,  made  from  coal  at  large  central  stations,  and  distributed  to  factories 
and  works,  is  the  fuel  of  the  future  which  will  not  only  clear  all  chimneys 
but  reduce  all  fuel  bills  as  well.  While  it  is  unquestionably  true  that  fuel 
gas  is  especially  adapted  for  household  use  and  will  play  an  important  part 
in  the  future  for  such  use,  it  is  equally  true  that  as  a  fuel  for  raising  steam 
it  can  never  compete  in  the  matter  of  economy  with  coal  directly  applied. 
At  several  establishments  where  gas  is  employed  for  certain  industrial  heat 
requirements  attempts  have  been  made  to  use  the  gas  under  boilers;  at 
first  glowing  reports  were  circulated  indicating  a  saving  over  coal  of  20% 


and  even  33A  «£.  A  little  experience  has  always  shown,  however,  not  only 
that  such  results  are  not  attained,  but  that  the  cost  of  the  gaseous  fuel  is  so 
much  in  excess  of  coal  used  directly  as  to  make  it  necessary  to  return  to  the 
latter  system. 

"  The  following  simple  calculation  will  serve  to  show  the  uselessness  of 
all  attempts  to  convert  bituminous  coal  into  gas  and  distribute  it  to  boiler 
plants. 

"The  average  quality  of  fuel  gas  made  from  a  trial  run  of  several  car 
loads  of  Illinois  coal  in  a  well-designed  fuel  gas  plant  showed  a  calorific 
value  of  243,391  heat  units  per  1000  cubic  feet  of  gas  or  10,105,594  heat 
units  per  ton  of  coal.  This  is  equivalent  to  5052.8  heat  units  per  pound  of 
coal,  whereas,  by  direct  calorimeter  test  an  average  sample  of  the  coal  gave 
11,172.6  heat  units,  or  an  efficiency  of  45.2%. 

"  One  pound  of  the  coal  by  direct  application  showed  a  theoretical 
evaporation  of  11.56  Ibs.  of  water. 

"  The  gas  from  one  pound  of  the  coal  showed  a  theoretical  evaporation 
of  5.23  Ibs.  water. 

"  48.17  pounds  of  the  coal  were  required  to  furnish  1000  feet  of  the  gas. 

"  Taking  the  efficiency  in  the  use  of  the  coal  direct  at  50%, 

"  Taking  the  efficiency  in  the  use  of  the  gas  direct  at  90%, 

"  Taking  the  cost  of  the  coal  at  6  cents  per  bushel, 

"  Taking  the  cost  of  the  gas  at  8  cents  per  1000  cubic  feet, 
we    have   as  the   cost  of  evaporating  1000  Ibs.  of  water  by  coal  directly 
applied  : 

"T5o°<j  °f  11.56  =  5.78  Ibs.  of  water  to  be  evaporated  in  practice  by 
1  Ib.  of  coal. 

"  i5ofg°  =  173  Ibs.  of  coal  to  evaporate  1000  Ibs.  of  water ;  173  Ibs.  of 
coal  at  6  cents  per  bushel  =  13  cents,  and  as  the  cost  of  the  same  coal  con- 
verted into  gas  and  applied, 

"  iW  °f  5-23  =  4.71  Ibs.  of  water  to  be  evaporated  in  practice  by  gas 
from  1  Ib.  of  coal. 

"  ij°™  =  212.3  Ibs.  of  coal  required  =  4400  cubic  feet  of  gas;  4400 
cubic  feet  of  gas  at  8  cents  per  1000  =  35.2  cents. 

"  It  will  be  observed  that  the  conditions  assumed  are  especially  favorable 
to  the  gas,  the  cost  being  placed  at  the  remarkably  low  figure  of  8  cents  per 
1000  cubic  feet,  which  is  about  the  actual  cost  of  manufacture  and  distribu- 
tion upon  a  large  scale,  and  a  very  high  efficiency  is  taken.  Notwithstanding 
all  this  the  coal  used  directly  shows  an  advantage  of  over  170%." 


NOTE :     Prof.  Potter's  remarks  are  based   on   conditions  found   in   St.  Louis  and 
adjacent  territory. 

Natural  Gas,  is  variously  constituted,  and  hence  the  estimates  of  its 
heating  power  vary. 

Experiments  in  Pittsburgh  show  1000  cubic  feet  of  natural  gas  in  actual 
efficiency  under  boilers  equal  to  from  80  to  133  pounds  coal.  The  coal 
varies  from  12000  to  13000  B.  T.  U.  per  pound  ;  hence  say  1,000,000  to 
1,200,000  B.  T.  U.  per  1000  feet  of  natural  gas. 

A  Committee  of  the  Western  Society  of  Engineers  of  Pittsburgh,  report 
1  Ib.  good  coal  =  7£  cubic  feet  natural  gas. 

—  53  — 


When  burnt  with  just  enough  air  its  temperature  of  combustion  is 
4200°  F.  The  Westinghouse  Brake  Co.  in  Pittsburgh  found  that  with  the 
best  grade  of  Youghiogheny  coal  they  could  evaporate  10.38  Ibs.  water,  and 
with  the  same  boiler  1.18  feet  natural  gas  evaporated  1  Ib.  water.  They  con- 
clude that  1  Ib.  Youghiogheny  coal  =  12£  Ib.  natural  gas,  or  1000  cubic 
feet  natural  gas  —  81.6  Ib.  coal. 

The  Indiana  natural  gas  gives  1,100,000  B.  T.  U.  for  1000  cubic  feet 
and  weighs  0.045  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot. 

The  analyses  compare  as  follows  : 


TABLE  No.  32. 


Analyses  of  Natural  Gas. 


Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  Gas.        Findlay,  Ohio,  Gas. 


Hydrogen.-                                    __  22.0 

Marsh  gas 67.0 

Carbonic  oxide 0.6 

Olefiant  gas 1.0 

Carbonic  acid 0.6 

Nitrogen 3.0 

Oxygen 0.8 

Ethylic  hydride 5.0 

Sulphuretted  hydrogen 

100.0 


2.18 
92.61 
0.26 
0.30 
0.50 
3.61 
0.34 

0.20 
100.00 


500  H.  P.  Heine  Boiler  ready  for  transportation. 
—  54  — 


WATER. 


Pure  water  at  62°  F.  weighs  62.355  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  or  8£  pounds 
per  U.  S.  gallon  ;  7.48  gallons  =  1  cubic  foot.  It  takes  30  pounds  or  3.ti 
gallons  for  each  horse-power  per  hour.  It  would  be  difficult  to  get  at  the 
total  daily  horse-power  of  steam  used  in  the  U.  S.,  but  it  reaches  into  the 
billions  of  gallons  of  feed  water  per  day. 

The  importance  of  knowing  what  impurities  exist  in  most  feed  waters, 
how  these  act  on  a  boiler,  and  how  they  may  be  removed  is,  therefore, 
patent  to  every  intelligent  engineer. 

We  give,  therefore,  the  thoughts  of  some  prominent  investigators  on 
the  subject. 

Prof.  Thurston  says : 

"Incrustation  and  sediment  are  deposited  in  boilers,  the  one  by  the 
precipitation  of  mineral  or  other  salts  previously  held  in  solution  in  the  feed- 
water,  the  other  by  the  deposition  of  mineral  insoluble  matters,  usually 
earths,  carried  into  it  in  suspension  or  mechanical  admixture.  Occasionally 
also  vegetable  matter  of  a  glutinous  nature  is  held  in  solution  in  the  feed- 
water,  and,  precipitated  by  heat  or  concentration,  covers  the  heating-surfaces 
with  a  coating  almost  impermeable  to  heat  and  hence  liable  to  cause  an 
over-heating  that  may  be  very  dangerous  to  the  structure.  A  powdery 
mineral  deposit  sometimes  met  with  is  equally  dangerous,  and  for  the  same 
reason.  The  animal  and  vegetable  oils  and  greases  carried  over  from  the 
condenser  or  feed  water  heater  are  also  very  likely  to  cause  trouble.  Only 
mineral  oils  should  be  permitted  to  be  thus  introduced,  and  that  in  minimum 
quantity.  Both  the  efficiency  and  the  safety  of  the  boiler  are  endangered 
by  any  of  these  deposits. 

"  The  amount  of  the  foreign  matter  brought  into  the  steam-boiler  is 
often  enormously  great.  A  boiler  of  100  horse-power  uses,  as  an  average, 
probably  a  ton  and  a  half  of  water  per  hour,  or  not  far  from  400  tons  per 
month,  steaming  ten  hours  per  day,  and  even  with  water  as  pure  as  the 
Croton  at  New  York,  receives  90  pounds  of  mineral  matter,  and  from  many 
spring  waters  a  ton  which  must  be  either  blown  out  or  deposited.  These 
impurities  are  usually  either  calcium  carbonate  or  calcium  sulphate,  or  a 
mixture  ;  the  first  is  most  common  on  land,  the  second  at  sea.  Organic 
matters  often  harden  these  mineral  scales,  and  make  them  more  difficult  of 
removal. 

"  The  only  positive  and  certain  remedy  for  incrustation  and  sediment 
once  deposited  is  periodical  removal  by  mechanical  means,  at  sufficiently 
frequent  intervals  to  insure  against  injury  by  too  great  accumulation. 
Between  times,  some  good  may  be  done  by  special  expedients  suited  to 
the  individual  case.  No  one  process  and  no  one  antidote  will  suffice  for  all 
cases. 

—  55  — 


o 

OQ 


X 


02  s_T  •= 


u  <  I 

C/D   ^ 

o> 
a, 
a. 

'3 
a* 

UJ 


"  Where  carbonate  of  lime  exists,  sal-ammoniac  may  be  used  as  a  pre- 
ventive of  incrustation,  a  double  decomposition  occuring,  resulting  in  the 
production  of  ammonium  carbonate  and  calcium  chloride — both  of  which  are 
soluble,  and  the  first  of  which  is  volatile.  The  bicarbonate  may  be  in  part 
precipitated  before  use  by  heating  to  the  boiling-point,  and  thus  breaking  up 
the  salt  and  precipitating  the  insoluble  carbonate.  Solutions  of  caustic  lime 
and  metallic  zinc  act  in  the  same  manner.  Waters  containing  tannic  acid 
and  the  acid  juices  of  oak,  sumach,  logwood,  hemlock,  and  other  woods,  are 
sometimes  employed,  but  are  apt  to  injure  the  iron  of  the  boiler,  as  may 
acetic  or  other  acid  contained  in  the  various  saccharine  matters  often  intro- 
duced into  the  boiler  to  prevent  scale,  and  which  also  make  the  lime-sulphate 
scale  more  troublesome  than  when  clean.  Organic  matters  should  never  be 
used. 

"  The  sulphate  scale  is  sometimes  attacked  by  the  carbonate  of  soda, 
the  products  being  a  soluble  sodium  sulphate  and  a  pulverulent  insoluble 
calcium  carbonate,  which  settles  to  the  bottom  like  other  sediments  and  is 
easily  washed  off  the  heating-surfaces.  Barium  chloride  acts  similarly, 
producing  barium  sulphate  and  calcium  chloride.  All  the  alkalies  are  used  at 
times  to  reduce  incrustations  of  calcium  sulphate,  as  is  pure  crude  petroleum, 
the  tannate  of  soda,  and  other  chemicals. 

"The  effect  of  incrustation,  and  of  deposits  of  various  kinds,  is  to 
enormously  reduce  the  conducting  power  of  heating-surfaces ;  so  much  so, 
that  the  power,  as  well  as  the  economic  efficiency  of  a  boiler,  may  become 
very  greatly  reduced  below  that  for  which  it  is  rated,  and  the  supply  of 
steam  furnished  by  it  may  become  wholly  inadequate  to  the  requirements  of 
the  case. 

"  It  is  estimated  that  a  sixteenth  of  an  inch  (0.16  cm.)  thickness  of  hard 
*  scale '  on  the  heating-surface  of  a  boiler  will  cause  a  waste  of  nearly  one- 
sighth  its  efficiency,  and  the  waste  increases  as  the  square  of  its  thickness. 
The  boilers  of  steam  vessels  are  peculiarly  liable  to  injury  from  this  cause 
where  using  salt  water,  and  the  introduction  of  the  surface-condenser  has 
been  thus  brought  about  as  a  remedy.  Land  boilers  are  subject  to  incrusta- 
tion by  the  carbonate  and  other  salts  of  lime,  and  by  the  deposit  of  sand  or 
mud  mechanically  suspended  in  the  feed-water. 

"  It  has  been  estimated  that  the  annual  cost  of  operation  of  locomotives 
in  limestone  districts  is  increased  $750  by  deposits  of  scale." 

We  give  below  an  extract  from  an  interesting  paper  on  the  "  Impurities 
of  Water,"  contributed  by  Messrs.  Hunt  and  Clapp,  to  the  transactions  of 
the  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,  for  1888. 


Commercial  Analyses. 

By  far  the  most  common  commercial  analysis  of  water  is  made  to  deter- 
mine its  fitness  for  making  steam.  Water  containing  more  than  five  parts 
per  hundred  thousand  of  free  sulphuric  or  nitric  acid  is  liable  to  cause  serious 
corrosion,  not  only  of  the  metal  of  the  boiler  itself,  but  of  the  pipes,  cylin- 
ders, pistons,  and  valves  with  which  the  steam  comes  in  contact.  Sulphuric 
acid  is  the  only  one  of  these  acids  liable  to  be  present  in  the  water  from 

—  57  — 


natural  sources ;  it  being  often  produced  in  the  water  of  the  coal  and  iron 
districts,  by  the  oxidation  of  iron  pyrites  to  sulphate  of  iron,  which,  being 
soluble,  is  lixiviated  from  the  earth  strata,  and  carried  into  the  strearr.  The 
presence  of  organic  matter  taken  up  by  the  water  in  its  after-course,  reduc- 
ing the  iron  and  lining  the  bottom  of  the  stream  with  red  oxide  of  iron,  and 
leaving  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  sulphuric  acid  free  in  the  water. 
This  is  a  troublesome  feature  with  the  water  necessarily  used  in  many  of 
the  iron  districts  of  this  country.  The  sulphuric  acid  may  come  from  other 
natural  chemical  reactions  than  the  one  described  above.  Muriatic  and  nitric 
acids,  as  well  as  often  sulphuric  acid,  may  be  conveyed  into  water  through 
the  refuse  of  various  kinds  of  manufacturing  establishments  discharged  into  it. 

The  large  total  residue  in  water  used  for  making  steam  causes  the  inte- 
rior linings  of  the  boilers  to  become  coated,  clogs  their  action,  and  often  pro- 
duces a  dangerous  hard  scale,  which  prevents  the  cooling  action  of  the  water 
from  protecting  the  metal  against  burning. 

Lime  and  magnesia  bicarbonates  in  water  lose  their  excess  of  carbonic 
acid  on  boiling,  and  often,  especially  when  the  water  contains  sulphuric  acid, 
produce,  with  the  other  solid  residues  constantly  being  formed  by  the  evap- 
oration, a  very  hard  and  insoluble  scale. 

A  larger  amount  than  100  parts  per  100,000  of  total  solid  residue  will 
ordinarily  cause  troublesome  scale,  and  should  condemn  the  water  for  use 
in  steam  boilers,  unless  a  better  supply  cannot  be  obtained. 

The  following  is  a  tabulated  form  of  the  causes  of  trouble  with  water  for 
steam  purposes,  and  the  proposed  remedies,  given  by  Prof.  L.  M.  Norton,  in 
his  lecture  on  "  Industrial  Chemistry." 

Brief  Statement  of  Causes  of  Incrustation. 

1.  Deposition  of  suspended  matter. 

2.  Deposition  of  dissolved  salts  from  concentration. 

3.  Deposition  of  carbonates    of  lime  and  magnesia  by  boiling  off  car- 
bonic acid,  which  holds  them  in  solution. 

4.  Deposition  of   sulphates  of  lime,  because  sulphate  of  lime  is  but 
slightly  soluble  in  cold  water,  less  soluble  in  hot  water,  insoluble  above  140° 
Centigrade.     (284  degrees  Fahrenheit.) 

5.  Deposition  of  magnesia,  because    magnesium    salts    decompose  at 
high  temperature. 

6.  Deposition  of  lime  soap,   iron  soap,  etc.,  formed   by  saponification 
of  grease. 

Various  Means  of  Preventing  Incrustation. 

1.  Filtration. 

2.  Blowing  off. 

3.  Use  of   internal  collecting  apparatus  or  devices  for  directing  the  cir- 
culation. 

4.  Heating  feed  water. 

5.  Chemical  or  other  treatment  of  water  in  boiler. 

6.  Introduction  of  zinc  into  boiler. 

7.  Chemical  treatment  of  water  outside  of  boiler. 

—  58  — 


Troublesome  Substance. 
Sediment,  mud,  clay,  etc. 
Readily  soluble  salts. 


Tabular  View. 

' 

Trouble. 
Incrustation. 
Incrustation. 


Bicarbonates    of    lime,   magnesia, 
iron. 

Sulphate  of  lime. 

Chloride  and  sulphate  of    magne- 
sium. 


Incrustation. 

Incrustation. 
Corrosion. 


Carbonate  of  soda  in  large  amounts.  Priming. 

Corrosion. 
Corrosion. 


Acid  (in  mine  waters). 

Dissolved   carbonic  acid    and  ox- 
ygen. 


Grease  (from  condensed  water).        Corrosion. 

Organic  matter  (sewage).  Priming. 

Organic  matter.  Corrosion. 


Remedy  or  Palliation. 

j  Filtration. 
\  Blowing  off. 

Blowing  off. 

[  Heating  feed.     Addition  of  cau» 
tic    soda,   lime,    or    magne 
I        sia,  etc. 

I  Addition  of  carbonate  of  soda, 
I       barium  chloride. 

f  Addition  of  carbonate  of  soda, 
I       e;c. 

/  Addition    of     barium    chloride. 
1       etc. 

Alkali. 

/  Heating  feed.     Addition  of  caus- 
V       tic  soda,  slacked  lime,  etc. 

{Slacked  lime  and  filtering.  C>r. 
bonate  of  soda.  Substitute 
mineral  oil. 

f  Precipitate  with   alum  or  ferric 
\       chloride  and  filter, 

Ditto. 


The  mineral  matters  causing  the  most  troublesome  boiler-scales  are  b' 
carbonates  and  sulphates  of  lime  and  magnesia,  oxides  of  iron  and  alumina, 
and  silica.     We  present  here  a  table  showing  the  amount  and  nature  of  im- 
purities in  feed  water  in  different  sections  of  the  United  States.  (Table  33.) 

NOTE.  The  mud  drum  of  the  Heine  Boiler,  surrounded  as  it  is,  by  water  at  a 
temperature  of  about  350°  F.,  forms  a  sort  of  live  steam  purifier  in  which  a  large  part 
of  the  scale  forming  salts  are  precipitated.  It  is  largely  on  this  account  that  the 
Heine  Boiler  is  able  to  work  satisfactorily  with  the  most  impure  waters,  where  other 
boilers,  lacking  the  mud-drum-purifier,  fail  of  success  altogether.  This  has  bee-i 
practically  demonstrated  on  many  occasions.  Probably  no  "tougher"  water  is 
encountered  by  boiler  users  anywhere,  than  in  Columbus,  Ohio.  Heine  Boilers  sup- 
planted flue  boilers  there,  that  were  struggling  in  vain  against  scale.  The  success  of 
the  Heine  Boiler  with  this  water  was  a  most  unqualified  one.  The  L.  Hoster  Brewing 
Co.  and  the  Columbus  Electric  Light  and  Power  Co.  both  have  large  plants  of 
Heine  Boilers,  and  we  think  will  cheerfully  testify  to  the  superiority  of  the  Heine 
Boiler  in  this  respect.  It  is  not  claimed  that  NO  scale  will  form  in  the  Heine  BoiJer 
when  operated  with  scale  producing  water.  It  is  only  those  boilers  which  have  no 
particular  reputation  for  good  service,  those  boilers  that  are  guaranteed  (?)  to  do 
anything  and  everything,  that  run  scaleless  on  bad  water.  Eternal  vigilance  is  the 
price  of  many  things  besides  liberty  and  constant  watchfulness  is  necessary  if  scale 
is  to  be  avoided  in  any  boiler.  But  common,  every  day  experience  has  shown  that 
the  conditions  which  aid  in  the  prevention  of  scale  in  boilers  are  more  perfectly  pro 
vided  for  in  the  Heine  than  in  any  other  type. 


Oil  or  grease  often  causes  as  much  trouble  in  boilers  as  scale  or  mud, 
and  is  much  more  difficult  to  remove,  as  it  cannot  be  "  blown  off."  It  re- 
quires especial  care  where  a  part  or  the  whole  of  the  feed  water  comes  from 
condensers  or  from  heating  coils  where  exhaust  steam  is  used. 

We  reprint  a  warning  given  by  the  oldest  boiler  insurance  company  in 
the  United  States. 


—  59  — 


TABLE  No.  33. 
Table  of  Water  Analyses. 

Grains  per  U.  S.  Gallon,  231  Cubic  Inches. 


WHERE  FROM. 

Lime  and  Magnesia 
Carbonates. 

i 

Lime  and  Magnesia 
Sulphates. 

Sodium  Chloride. 
(Salt.) 

ji 
« 
U 

v   jj 

T3     <u 

'*    : 
Of 

ll 

_y 

°e 
n 
U 

0 

•a 
c 
°J     . 

L. 

i| 

0    * 

Total  Solids  in  Grains. 

Buffalo   N   Y    Lake  Erie 

5.66 

3.32 

0.58 

0.18 

9  74 

Pittsburgh   Allegheny  River 

0.37 

3  78 

0.58 

037 

1  50 

6  60 

Pittsburgh,  Monongahela  River-  - 
Milwaukee,  Wisconsin  River  
Galveston    Texas    1 

1.06 
6.23 
13.68 

5.12 
4.67 
13.52 

0.64 
1.76 
326.64 

0.78 
20.14 
Trace 

3.20 
6.50 
Trace 

10.80 
39.30 
353  84 

Columbus  Ohio 

20.76 

11  74 

7.02 

0  58 

6  50 

46  60 

Washington,  D.  C.,  city  supply-- 
Baltimore Md  ,  city  supply-- 

2.87 

2.77 

3.27 
0.65 

Trace. 
Trace. 

0.36 
0.10 

2.10 
3.80 

8.60 
7.30 

Sioux  City   la    city  supply 

19.76 

1  24 

1  17 

1  03 

4  40 

27  60 

Los  Angeles    Cal     1 

10.12 

5.84 

351 

2.63 

4.10 

26.20 

Bay  City  Michigan  Bay 

8  47 

10  36 

90  48 

1  15 

8  74 

49  90 

Bay  City  Michigan,  River 

4.84 

33  66 

126  78 

3.00 

1092 

179  20 

Cincinnati,  Ohio  River-      

3.88 

0.78 

1.79 

Trace. 

6.73 

^^atertown   Conn 

1  47 

4  51 

1  76 

Trace 

1  78 

9  52 

Ft.  \Vayne    Ind. 

8.78 

622 

3.51 

1.59 

10  98 

31.08 

Wilmington,  Del.-     _.  -  

10.04 

6  02 

4.29 

8.48 

6.17 

35.00 

Galveston,  Texas    2 

21.79 

29  149 

398.99 

4  00 

4,',3.93 

\Vichita,  Kansas  -  - 

14.14 

25.91 

24.34 

2.00 

66.39 

Los  Angeles,  Cal  ,   2 

3  72 

12  59 

0.76 

600 

23.07 

St.  Louis,  Mo.,  well  water  -  - 

27.04 

23  73 

15.57 

3.49 

0.46 

70.29 

Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  artesian  well  
Springfield,  111.,  1  

23.45 

12  99 

5.71 
7  40 

18.41 
1.97 

1.04 
2.19 

0.82 
8.62 

49.43 
33.17 

Springfield   111.    2 

5  47 

4  31 

1.56 

4  28 

5  83 

21.45 

Hillsboro,  111.- 

14  56 

2  97 

239 

1.63 

Trace. 

21.55 

Pueblo    Colo 

4  32 

16  15 

1  90 

1  97 

5  12 

28.76 

Long  Island  City    L.  I. 

4  0 

28  0 

16.0 

1.0 

39.0 

Mississippi  River,  above  Missouri 
River-  

8  24 

1  02 

0.50 

5.25 

15.01 

Mississippi  River,  below  mouth  of 
Missouri  River  

10  64 

7  41 

1.36 

1  °2 

15.86 

36.49 

Mississippi    River   at    St.    Louis 

w.  w  

9  64 

6  94 

1  54 

1  57 

9  85 

29.54 

Missouri  River  above  mouth 

1007 

8  92 

1  87 

3.26 

11.37 

35.49 

—  60  — 


(Reprinted  from  "THE  LOCOMOTIVE,"  March,  1885;   published  by  the  Hartford  Steam 
Boiler  Inspection  and  Insurance  Co.)# 

The   Effect  of  Oil  in   Boilers. 

We  have  often  referred  to  the  fact  that  the  presence  of  grease  or  any  of 
the  animal  oils  in  steam  boilers  is  almost  certain  to  cause  trouble.  Our 
i.  lustration  this  month  gives  a  better  idea  of  the  effect  produced  than  pages 
of  verbal  description  possibly  could.  It  is  from  a  photograph  and  is  nowise 
exaggerated. 


The  boiler  from  which  the  plate  shown  in  the  cut  was  taken,  was  a 
nearly  new  one.  It  was  made  of  a  well-known  brand  of  mild  steel,  and 
that  it  was  admirably  adapted  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  used,  is  proved 
by  its  stretching  as  it  did  without  rupture.  The  dimensions  of  bulge  shown 
are  four  feet  lengthwise  of  the  boiler,  three  feet  girthwise  and  nine  inches 
deep.  The  metal,  originally  5-16  of  an  inch  thick,  drew  down  to  %  inch  in 
thickness  at  the  lowest  point  of  the  "bag"  without  the  slightest  indication 
of  fracture. 

The  circumstances  under  which  the  bulge  occurred  may  best  be  described 
in  the  words  of  the  inspector  who  examined  the  boiler,  and  are  as  follows  : 

"Last  Tuesday  morning  I  was  called  in  great  haste  to  the works. 

Upon  arrival  I  found  one  of  the  boilers  badly  bulged,  and  with  twenty  pounds 
of  steam  up.  I  could  give  no  explanation  until  I  had  thoroughly  examined 
the  internal  parts  of  the  boiler.  1  gave  directions  for  cooling  the  boiler  and 
ordered  top  man-hole  plate  to  be  loosened,  but  not  to  be  taken  out  until  my 
arrival  in  the  afternoon,  that  I  might  see  everything  undisturbed.  This  was 
done.  On  my  arrival  I  took  out  the  man-hole  plates  in  top  of  shell  and 
front  head  *  *  *  and  made  an  examination." 

"I  found  that  the  boiler  had  been  cleaned  the  preceding  Sunday,  and  at  that 
time  a  gallon  or  more  of  black  oil  had  been  thrown  into  it.  Monday  morning 
the  boiler  was  fired  up  and  was  run  through  the  day  at  a  pressure  of  90 
pounds  per  square  inch.  At  six  o'clock  Monday  night  the  engine  was  stop- 
ped, the  drafts  were  closed,  and  no  more  firing  was  done  until  nine  o'clock. 
Upon  going  to  fire  up  at  this  time,  the  bulge  was  observed.  From  six  to 
nine  o'clock  a  pressure  of  only  40  pounds  was  carried." 

"Upon  examination  I  found  the  entire  boiler  saturated  with  this  oil." 

This  is  almost  certain  to  be  the  result  of  putting  grease  into  a  steam 
boiler.  It  settles  down  on  the  fire-sheets,  when  the  draft  is  closed,  and  the 
circulation  of  water  nearly  stops,  and  prevents  contact  between  the  plates 

—  61  — 


and  the  water.  As  a  consequence,  the  plates  over  the  fire  become  over- 
heated; and  under  such  circumstances  a  very  slight  steam -pressure  is  suffi- 
cient to  bag  the  sheets.  Unless  the  boiler  is  made  of  very  good  material, 
the  plate  is  apt  to  be  fractured,  and  explosion  is  likely  to  occur. 

When  oil  is  used  to  remove  scale  from  steam-boilers,  too  much  care 
cannot  be  exercised  to  make  sure  that  it  is  free  from  grease  or  animal  oil. 
Nothing  but  pure  mineral  oil  should  be  used.  Crude  petroleum  is  one 
thing;  black  oil,  which  may  mean  almost  anything,  is  very  likely  to  be 
something  quite  different. 

The  action  of  grease  in  a  boiler  is  peculiar,  but  not  more  so  than  we 
might  expect.  It  does  not  dissolve  in  the  water,  nor  does  it  decompose, 
neither  does  it  remain  on  top  of  the  water,  but  it  seems  to  form  itself  into 
what  may  be  described  as  "slugs,"  which  at  first  seem  to  be  slightly  lighter 
than  the  water,  of  just  such  a  gravity,  in  fact,  that  the  circulation  of  the 
water  carries  them  about  at  will.  After  a  short  season  of  boiling,  these 
"slugs"  or  suspended  drops  seem  to  acquire  a  certain  degree  of  "stickiness," 
so  that  when  they  come  in  contact  with  shell  and  flues  of  the  boiler,  they 
begin  to  adhere  thereto.  Then  under  the  action  of  heat  they  begin  the 
process  of  "varnishing"  the  interior  of  the  boiler.  The  thinnest  possible 
coating  of  this  varnish  is  sufficient  to  bring  about  overheating  oj  the  plates, 
as  we  have  found  repeatedly  in  our  experience.  We  emphasize  the  point 
that  it  is  not  necessary  to  have  a  coating  of  grease  of  any  appreciable 
thickness  to  cause  overheating  and  bagging  of  plates  and  leakage  at  seams. 

The  time  when  damage  is  most  likely  to  occur  is  after  the  fires  are 
banked,  for  then,  the  formation  of  steam  being  checked,  the  circulation  of 
water  stops,  and  the  grease  thus  has  an  opportunity  to  settle  on  the  bottom 
of  the  boiler  and  prevent  contact  of  the  water  with  the  fire-sheets.  Under 
these  circumstances,  a  very  low  degree  of  heat  in  the  furnace  is  sufficient  to 
overheat  the  plates  to  such  an  extent  that  bulging  is  sure  to  occur.  When 
the  facts  are  understood,  it  will  be  found  quite  unnecessary  to  attribute  the 
damage  to  low  water. 

This  accident  also  serves  to  illustrate  the  perfection  to  which  the  manu- 
facture of  steel  for  boiler  plates  has  attained.  It  would  be  an  extraordin- 
arily good  quality  of  iron  that  would  stand  such  a  test  without  fracture. 


250  H.  P.  Heine  Boiler  "en  route.' 
—  G2  — 


m 

/v:  a*«5  f 


mmm\ 
mmmml 
m  mm  ml 

»«aajj 


Weight  of  Water. 

The  weight  of  water  varies  with  the  temperature  as  given  by  the  fol- 
lowing table.     (C.  A.  SMITH.) 

TABLE  No.  34. 
Weight  of  One  Cubic  Foot  Water  at  Various  Temperatures. 


Temp., 
Degrees  F. 

Weight  per 
Cubic  Foot. 

Temp., 
Degrees  F. 

Weight  per 
Cubic  Foot. 

Temp., 
Degrees  F. 

Weight  per 
Cubic  Foot. 

Temp., 
Degrees  F. 

Weight  per 
Cubic  Foot. 

32 

62.418 

85 

62.182 

145 

61.291 

205 

59.930 

35 

62.422 

90 

62.133 

150 

61.201 

210 

59.820 

39.1 

62.425 

95 

62.074 

155 

61.096 

212 

59.760 

40 

62.425 

100 

62.022 

160 

60.991 

By  formula. 

212 

59.640 

45 

62.422 

105 

61.960 

165 

60.843 

By  measurera't 

230 

59.360 

50 

62.409 

110 

61.868 

170 

60.783 

250 

58.780 

55 

62.394 

115 

61.807 

175 

60.665 

270 

58.150 

60 

62.372 

120 

61.715 

180 

60.548 

290 

57.590 

65 

62.344 

125 

61.654 

185 

60.430 

298 

57.270 

70 

62.313 

130 

61.563 

190 

60.314 

338 

56.140 

75 

62.275 

135 

61.472 

195 

60.198 

366 

55.290 

80 

62.232 

140 

61.381 

200 

60.081 

390 

54.540 

Very  often  in  the  trials  of  a  boiler  or  engine  the  most  convenient  unit  oi 
measurement  of  water  is  the  cubic  foot.  This  will  be  the  case  when  a  weir 
measurement  is  made  or  when  the  water  is  measured  by  a  water  meter.  The 
uje  of  a  water  meter  involves  many  precautions,  the  most  important  being 
the  following :  The  meter  should  work  under  moderate  head  of  supply  and 
small  head  of  delivery  ;  it  should  be  set  in  such  a  manner  that  it  can  be 
tested  in  place  under  the  exact  conditions  of  use ;  if  a  positive  meter,  it  should 
be  especially  constructed  to  work  freely,  if  it  is  to  be  used  in  warm  water. 
This  table  is  also  used  for  estimating  the  weight  of  water  in  boilers,  and  for 
correcting  boiler  trials  for  differences  of  water  level. 


150  H.  P.  Heine  Boiler. 

Size  for  Water  Pipes. 

We  found  at  beginning  of  this  article,  3.6  gallons  feed  water  are  required 
for  each  H.  P.  per  hour.  This  makes  6  gallons  per  minute  for  a  100  H.  P. 
boiler.  In  proportioning  pipes,  however,  it  is  well  to  rem  ember  that  boiler 

—  64  — 


work  is  seldom  perfectly  steady,  and  that  as  the  engine  cuts  off  just  as  much 
steam  as  the  work  demands  at  each  stroke,  all  the  discrepancies  of  demand 
and  supply  have  to  be  equalized  in  the  boiler.  Therefore  we  may  often  have 
to  evaporate  during  one-half  hour  50  to  75  per  cent  more  than  the  normal 
requirements.  For  this  reason  it  is  sound  policy  to  arrange  the  feed  pipes  so 
that  10  gallons  per  minute  may  flow  through  them,  without  undue  speed  or 
friction,  for  each  100  H.  P.  of  boiler  capacity.  The  following  tables  will 
facilitate  this  work: 

TABLE  No.  35. 

Table  Giving  Rate  of  Flow  of  Water,  in  Ft.  per  Min.,  Through 
Pipes  of  Various  Sizes,  for  Varying  Quantities  of  Flow, 


Gallons 
per  min. 

X" 

1" 

w 

i>2" 

2" 

2>a" 

3" 

4" 

5 
10 
15 
20 
25 
30 

218 
436 
653 
872 
1090 

122£ 
245 
367£ 
490 
612J 
735 

78J 
157 
235£ 
314 
3924 
451 

54£ 
109 
163£ 
218 
2724. 
327 

304. 
61 

9ij 

122 
152£ 
183 

19^ 

38 
584 
78 
974. 
117 

13J 

27 
404. 
54 
674. 
81 

7§ 
15J 

23 
3C§ 
38^ 
46 

35 

857£ 

5494, 

3814. 

2134 

1364 

94^ 

53$ 

40 

980 

628 

436 

244 

156" 

108 

6U 

45 

1102£ 

7064 

4904 

2744 

1754. 

1214 

69 

50 

785 

545 

305 

195 

135 

76? 

75 

1177£ 

8174. 

4574. 

2924 

202£ 

115 

100 

1090 

610 

380~ 

270 

1534; 

125 

762* 

4874. 

337^ 

191$ 

150 

915 

585 

405 

230 

175 

10674 

6824. 

472£ 

2684 

200 

1220 

780 

540 

3065$ 

TABLE  No.  36. 

Table  Giving  Loss  in  Pressure  Due  to  Friction,  in  Pounds  per 
Sq.  In.,  for  Pipe  100  Ft.  Long. 

By  G.  A.  Ellis,  C.  E. 


Gallons 

discharg- 
ed permin. 

h" 

1" 

IK" 

W 

2" 

2>2" 

3" 

4" 

5 

3.3 

0.84 

0.31 

0.12 

10 

13.0 

3.16 

1.05 

0.47 

0.12 

15 

28.7 

6.98 

2.38 

0.97 

20 

50  4 

12.3 

4.07 

1.66 

0.42 

25  | 

78.0 

19.0 

6.40 

2.62 

0.21 

0  10 

30 

27.5 

9.15 

3.75 

0.91 

35 

37.0 

12.4 

5.05 

40 

48.0 

16.1 

6.52 

1.60 

45 

20.2 

8.15 

50 

24.9 

10.0 

2.44 

0  81 

0  35 

0  09 

75 

56.1 

22.4 

5.32 

1.80 

0.74 

100 

39.0 

9.46 

3.20 

1.31 

0.33 

125 

14  9 

4  89 

1  99 

150 

21.2 

7.0 

2  85 

0  69 

175 

28.1 

9.46 

3.85 

200 

| 

37.5 

12.47 

5.02 

1.22 

i 

i 

—  65  — 


Loss  of  Head  Due  to  Bends. 


Bends  produce  a  loss  of  head  in  the  flow  of  water  in  pipes.  Weisbach 
gives  the  following  formula  for  this  loss  : 

H  =  f  —  where  H  =  loss  of  head  in  feet,  f  =  coefficient  of  friction,  v 

2g 

=  velocity  of  flow  in  feet  per  second,  g  ==  32.2. 

As  the  loss  of  head  or  pressure  is  in  most  cases  more  conveniently  stated 
in  pounds  per  square  inch,  we  may  change  this  formula  by  multiplying  by 
0.433,  which  is  the  equivalent  in  pounds  per  square  inch  for  one  foot  head. 

If  P  =  loss  in  pressure  in  pounds  per  square  inch,  F  =  coefficient  of 
friction. 

P  =  F  —--,  v  being  the  same  as  before. 

From  this  formula  has  been  calculated  the  following  table  of  vdues  for 
F,  corresponding  to  various  exterior  angles,  A. 

TABLE  No.  37. 


A     = 

F     = 

20° 
0.020 

40° 
0.060 

45° 
0.079 

60° 
0.158 

80° 
0.320 

90° 
0.426 

100° 
0.546 

110° 
0.674 

120° 
0.806 

130° 

0.934 

This  applies  to  such  short  bends  as  are  found  in  ordinary  fittings,  such 
as  90°  and  45°  Ells,  Tees,  etc. 

A  globe  valve  will  produce  a  loss   about   equal  to  two  90°  bends,  a 

straightway  valve  about  equal  to  one  45°  bend.     To  use  the  above  formula 

find  the  speed  p.  second,  being  one-sixtieth  of  that  found  in   Table  No.  35  ; 

square  this  speed,  and  divide  the  result  by  64.4;  multiply  the  quotient  by  the 

tabular  value  of  F  corresponding  to  the  angle  of  the  turn,  A. 

For  instance  a  400  H.  P.  battery  of  boilers  is  to  be  fed  through  a  2" 
pipe.  Allowing  for  fluctuations  we  figure  40  gallons  per  minute,  making  244 
feet  per  minute  speed,  equal  to  a  velocity  of  4.06  feet  per  second.  Suppose 
our  pipe  is  in  all  75  feet  long ;  we  have  from  Table  No.  36,  for  40  gallons  per 
minute,  1.60  pounds  loss;  for  75  feet  we  have  only  75  per  cent. .of  this 
=  1.20  pounds.  Suppose  we  have  6  right  angled  ells,  each  giving  F  = 
0.426.  We  have  then  4.06x4.06  =  16.48;  divide  this  by  64.4  =  0.256. 
Multiply  this  by  F  =  0.426  pounds,  and  as  there  are  six  ells,  multiply  again 
by  6,  and  we  have  6x0.426x0.256  =  0.654.  The  total  friction  in  the  pipe 
is  therefore  1.20+0.654  =  1.854  pounds  per  square  inch.  If  the  boiler 
pressure  is  100  pounds  and  the  water  level  in  the  boiler  is  8  feet  higher  than 
the  pump  suction  level,  we  have  first  8x0.433  =  3.464  pounds.  The  total 
pressure  on  the  pump  plunger  then  is  100+3.464+1.854  =  105.32  pounds 
per  square  inch.  If  in  place  of  six  right  angled  ells  we  had  used  three  45° 
ells,  they  would  have  cost  us  only  3x0.079  =  0.237  pounds  ;  0.237x0.256 
=  0.061. 

The  total  friction  head  would  have  been  1.20+0.061=1.261  and  the 
total  pressure  on  the  plunger  100+3.464+1.261=104.73  pounds  per  square 
inch,  a  saving  over  the  other  plan  of  nearly  0.6  pounds. 

To  be  accurate,  we  ought  to  add  a  certain  head  in  either  case  "to  pro- 
duce the  velocity."  But  this  is  very  small,  being  for  velocities  of  : 

2;  3;  4;  5;  6;  8;  10;  12  and  18  feet  per  sec. 
0.027;  0.061;  0.108;  0.168;  0.244;^0.433;  0.672;  0.970and2.181bs.per  sq.  in. 
Our  results  should  therefore  have  been  increased  by  about  0.11  Ibs. 

—  66  — 


Foresters'  Temple. 
Headquarters  of  Independent  Order  of  Foresters, 

TORONTO,  ONT.,  CANADA. 
Contains  240  H.  P.  of  Heine  Boilers. 


It  is  usual,  however,  to  use  larger  pipes  and  thus  to  materially  reduce 
the  frictional  losses. 


Rating   Boilers   by   Feed   Water. 

The  rating  of  boilers  has,  since  the  Centennial  in  1876,  been  generally 
based  on  30  pounds  feed  water  per  hour  per  H.  P.  This  is  a  fair  average 
for  good  non-condensing  engines  working  under  about  70  to  100  pounds 
pressure.  But  different  pressures  and  different  rates  of  expansion  change 
the  requirements  for  feed-water.  The  following  table,  No.  38,  gives  Prof. 
R.  H.  Thurston's  estimate  of  the  steam  consumption  for  the  best  classes  oj 
engines  in  common  use,  when  of  moderate  size  and  in  good  order: 

TABLE  No.  38. 
Weights  of  Feed  Water  and  of  Steam. 

Non-condensing  Engines. — R.  H.  T. 


STEAM  PRESSURE. 


LBS.  PER  H.  P.  PER  HOUR.— RATIO  OF  EXPANSION. 


Atmos- 
pheres. 

Lbs.  per 
sq.  in. 

2 

3 

4 

5 

7 

10 

3 

45 

40 

39 

40 

40 

42 

45 

4 

60 

35 

34 

36 

36 

38 

40 

5 

75 

30 

28 

27 

26 

30 

32 

6 

90 

28 

27 

26 

25 

27 

29 

7 

105 

26 

25 

24 

23 

25 

27 

8 

120 

25 

24 

23 

22 

22 

21 

10 

150 

24 

23 

22 

21 

20 

20 

Condensing  Engines. 


2 

30 

30 

28 

28 

30 

35 

40 

3 

45 

28 

27 

27 

26 

28 

32 

4 

60 

27 

26 

25 

24 

25 

27 

5 

75 

26 

25 

25 

23 

22 

24 

6 

'90 

26 

24 

24 

22 

21 

20 

8 

120 

25 

23 

23 

22 

21 

20 

10 

150 

25 

23 

22 

21 

20 

19 

Small  engines  having  greater  proportional  losses  in  friction,  in  leaks,  in 
radiation,  etc.,  and  besides  receiving  generally  less  care  in  construction  and 
running  than  larger  ones,  require  more  feed-water  (or  steam)  per  hour. 

Table  No.  39  gives  Mr.  R.  H.  Buel's  estimate  for  such  engines. 

—  68  — 


TABLE  No.  39. 


Feed-Water  Required  by  Small  Engines. 


Pressure  of  Steam 
in  Boiler,  by  Gauge. 

Pounds  of  Water  per 
Effective  Horse-power 
per  Hour. 

Pressure  of  Steam 
in  Boiler,  by  Gauge. 

Pounds  of  Water  per 
Effective  Horse-power 
per  Hour. 

10 

118 

60 

75 

15 

111 

70 

71 

20 

105 

80 

G8 

25 

100 

90 

65 

30 

93 

100 

63 

40 

84 

120 

61 

50 

79 

150 

58 

Boiler  Room  Alleghany  Traction  Co.  Plant, 

PITTSBURGH,  PA. 
500  H.  P.  Heine  Boilers. 

Heating  Feed-Water. 

Feed-water  as  it  comes  from  wells  or  hydrants  has  ordinarily  a  tempera- 
ture of  from  35°  in  winter  to  from  60°  to  70°  in  summer. 

Much  fuel  can  be  saved  by  heating  this  water  by  the  exhaust  steam, 
whose  heat  would  otherwise  be  wasted.  Until  quite  recently,  only  non- 
condensing  engines  utilized  feed-water  heaters  ;  but  lately  they  have  been 
introduced  with  success  between  the  cylinder  and  the  air  pump  in  condensing 
engines.  The  saving  in  fuel  due  to  heating  feed-water  is  given  in  Table 
No.  40. 

—  69  — 


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STEAM. 

When  water  is  heated  in  an  open  vessel  its  temperature  rises  until  it 
reaches  212°  (at  sea  level);  if  more  heat  is  added  a  portion  of  the  water 
changes  from  a  liquid  form  to  a  vapor  called  steam.  If  the  process  is  carried 
on  in  a  closed  vessel  the  pressure  within  the  same  rises  on  account  of  the 
expansive  force  of  the  steam.  The  water  then  will  rise  to  a  higher  temper- 
ature with  each  increment  of  pressure  before  it  begins  to  boil  and  form  steam. 

For  the  distinction  between  "sensible"  and  "latent"  heat  see  p.  7. 

The  following  table  No.  41,  giving  the  properties  of  saturated  steam,  is 
adapted  from  Prof.  Peabody's  well  known  tables.  The  first  column  gives 
the  actual  pressure  in  pounds  per  square  inch  above  the  atmosphere. 

Column  two  gives  the  temperature  in  degrees  Fahrenheit  for  the  cor- 
responding pressure. 

Columns  three  and  four  give  the  heat,  in  heat  units,  of  steam  and  water, 
respectively,  from  32°  F. 

Column  five  gives  the  heat  of  vaporization  for  the  corresponding  pres- 
sure, and  is  the  difference  between  columns  three  and  four. 

Columns  six  and  seven  give  the  weight  of  one  cubic  foot  in  pounds  and 
the  volume  of  one  pound  in  cubic  feet,  of  saturated  steam. 

Column  eight  gives  the  approximate  weight  of  one  cubic  foot  of  water 
for  the  corresponding  weight  and  temperature  and  is  calculated  from  Prof. 
Rankin's  approximate  formula  : 

2  Do 

To  +  461  160 

500  To  +  461 

D  =  required  density.     Do  =  max.  density  =  62.425  Ibs. 
To  =  given  temperature  in  degrees  F. 


Column  nine  gives  the  factor  of  equivalent  evaporation  from  and  at  212° 
F.,  assuming  feed  to  be  212°  in  each  case.  For  the  factor  of  evaporation  for 
any  temperature  of  feed,  add  0.00104  to  the  given  factor  for  each  degree  dif- 
ference in  temperature  between  feed  and  212°. 

For  complete  table  of  factors  of  evaporation,  see  page  152. 

The  horse-power  of  a  boiler  is  obtained  by  dividing  the  equivalent 
evaporation  from  and  at  212°  by  30.978.  This  is  on  the  basis  of  feed  from 
212°  to  steam  at  70  pounds  pressure.  On  the  basis  of  feed  from  100°  to  steam 
at  70  Ibs.,  divide  the  equivalent  evaporation  by  34.485. 

TABLE  No.  4i. 
Table  of  the  Properties  of  Saturated  Steam. 

From  Peabody's  Tables. 


in 
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180.8 

965.8 

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26.60 

59.76  (Formal.) 

59.64(«»>""«d) 

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10 

239.36 

1154.9 

208.4 

946.5 

0.06128 

16.32 

59.04 

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20 

258.68 

1160.8 

227.9 

932.9 

0.08439 

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58.50 

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273.87 

1165.5 

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922.3 

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9.347 

58.07 

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286.54 

1169.3 

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913.4 

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57.69 

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297.46 

1172.6 

266.9 

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307.10 

1175.6 

276.6 

899.0 

0.1729 

5.784 

57.08 

1.0300 

65 

311.54 

1176.9 

281.1 

895.8 

0.1837 

5.443 

56.95 

1.0314 

70 

315.77 

1178.2 

285.6 

892.7 

0.1945 

5.142 

56.82 

1.0327 

75 

319.80 

1179.5 

289.8 

889.8 

0.2052 

4.873 

56.69 

1.0341 

80 

323.66 

1180.6 

293.8 

886.9 

0.2159 

4.633 

56.59 

1.0352 

85 

327.36 

1181.8 

297.7 

884.2 

0.2265 

4.415 

56.47 

1.0365 

90 

330.92 

1182.8 

301.5 

881.5 

0.2371 

4.218 

56.36 

1.0375 

95 

334.35 

1183.9 

305.0 

879.0 

0.2477 

4.037 

56.25 

1.0386 

100 

337.66 

1184.9 

308.5 

876.5 

0.2583 

3.872 

56.18 

1.0397 

105 

340.86 

1185.9 

311.8 

874.1 

0.2689 

3.720 

56.07 

10407 

110 

343.95 

1186.8 

315.0 

871.8 

0.2794 

3.580 

55.97             1.0417 

115 

346.94 

1187.7 

318.2 

869.6 

0.2898 

3.452 

55.87 

1.0426 

120 

349.85 

1188.6 

321.2 

867.4 

0.3003 

3.330 

55.77 

1.0435 

125 

352.68 

1189.5 

324.2 

865.3 

0.3107 

3.219 

55.69 

1  .0444 

130 

355.43 

1190.3 

327.0 

863.3 

0.3212 

3.113 

55.58 

1.0452 

135 

358.10 

1191.1 

329.8 

861.3 

0.3315 

3.017 

55.52 

1.0461 

140 

360.70 

1191.9 

332.5 

859.4 

0.3420 

2.924 

55.44 

1  .0469 

145 

363.25 

1192.8 

335.2 

857.5 

0.3524 

2.838 

55.36 

1.0478 

150 

365.73 

1193.5 

337.8 

855.7 

0.3629 

2.756 

55.  '29 

1.0486 

155 

368.62 

1194.3 

3403 

853.9 

0.3731 

2.681 

55.22 

1.0494 

160 

370.51 

1195.0 

342.8 

852.1 

0.3835 

2.608 

55.15 

1.0500 

165 

372.83 

1195.7 

345.2 

850.4 

0.3939 

2.539 

55.07 

1  .0508 

170 

375.09 

1196.3 

347.6 

848.7 

0.4043 

2.474 

54.99 

1.0514 

175 

377.31 

1197.0 

349.9 

847.1 

0.4147 

2.412 

54.93 

1.0522 

180 

379.48 

1197.7 

352.2 

845.4 

0.4251 

2.353 

54.86 

1.0529 

185 

381.60 

1198.3 

354.4 

843.9 

0.4353 

2.297 

54.79 

1.0535 

190 

383.70 

1199.0 

356.6 

842.3 

0.4455 

2.244 

54.73 

1.0542 

195 

385.75 

1199.6 

358.8 

840.8 

0.4559 

2.103 

54.66 

1.0549 

200 

387.76 

1200.2 

360.9 

839.2 

0.4663 

2.145 

54.60 

1.0555 

325 

397.36 

1203.1 

370.9 

832.2 

0.5179 

1.930 

54.27 

1.0585 

250 

406.07 

1205.8 

380.1 

825.7 

0.569P 

1.755 

54.03 

1.0613 

275 

414.22 

1208.3 

3S8.5 

819.8 

0.621 

1.609 

53.77 

1.0639 

300 

421.83 

1210.6 

396.5 

814.1 

0.674           *     1.483 

53.54 

1.0666 

—  72 


The  Betz  Building, 

PHILADELPHIA,  PA., 

Contains  500  H.  P.  Heine  Boilers. 


Of  the  Motion  of  Steam. 

The  flow  of  steam  of  a  greater  pressure  into  an  atmosphere  of  a  less 
pressure,  increases  as  the  difference  of  pressure  is  increased,  until  the 
external  pressure  becomes  only  58  per  cent  of  the  absolute  pressure  in  the 
boiler.  The  flow  of  steam  is  neither  increased  nor  diminished  by  the  fall  of 
the  external  pressure  below  58  per  cent,  or  about  ^ths  of  the  inside  pressure, 
even  to  the  extent  of  a  perfect  vacuum.  In  flowing  through  a  nozzle  of  the 
best  form,  the  steam  expands  to  the  external  pressure,  and  to  the  volume 
due  to  this  pressure,  so  long  as  it  is  not  less  than  58  per  cent  of  the  internal 
pressure.  For  an  external  pressure  of  58  per  cent,  and  for  lower  percentages, 
the  ratio  of  expansion  is  1  to  1.624.  The  following  table,  No.  42,  is  selected 
from  Mr.  Brownlee's  data  exemplifying  the  rates  of  discharge,  under  a 
constant  internal  pressure,  into  various  external  pressures: 

TABLE  No.  42. 

Outflow  of  Steam  ;  From  a  Given  Initial  Pressure  into 
Various  Lower  Pressures. 

Absolute  Initial  Pressure  in  Boiler,  75  Lbs.  per  Square  Inch. 

D.  K.  C. 


Absolute  Pressure 
in  Boiler  in  Lbs. 
per  Square  Inch. 

External  Pressure 
in  Lbs. 
per   Square   Inch. 

Ratio  of 
Expansion  in 
Nozzle. 

Velocity  of 
Outflow  at  Con- 
stant Density. 

Actual  Velocity 
of  Outflow. 
Expanded. 

Discharge  per 
Square  Inch 
of  Orifice  per 
Minute. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Ratio. 

Ft.  per  Sec. 

Ft.  per  Sec. 

Lbs. 

75 

74 

1.012 

227.5 

230. 

16.68 

75 

72 

1.037 

386.7 

401. 

28.35 

75 

70 

1.063 

490. 

521. 

35.93 

75 

65 

1.136 

660. 

749. 

48.38 

75 

61.62 

1.198 

736. 

876. 

53.97 

75 

60 

1.219 

765. 

933. 

56.12 

75 

50 

1.434 

873. 

1252. 

64. 

75 

45 

1.575 

890. 

1401. 

65.24 

75 

43.46  (58%) 

1.624 

890.6 

1446.5 

65.3 

75 

15 

1.624 

890.6 

1446.5 

65.3 

75 

0 

1.624 

890.6 

1446.5 

65.3 

When,  on  the  contrary,  steam  of  varying  initial  pressure  is  discharged 
into  the  atmosphere — pressures  of  which  the  atmospheric  pressure  is  not 
more  than  58  per  cent — the  velocity  of  outflow  at  constant  density,  that  is, 
supposing  the  initial  density  to  be  maintained,  is  given  by  the  formula — 

V  =  3.5953  VTT   (1) 

where  V  =  the  velocity  of  outflow  in  feet  per  minute,  as  for  steam  of  the 
initial  density,  h  =  the  height  in  feet  of  a  column  of  steam  of  the  given  abso- 
lute initial  pressure  of  uniform  density,  the  weight  of  which  is  equal  to  the 
pressure  on  the  unit  of  base. 

The  following  table  is  calculated  from  this  formula  : 

—  74  — 


TABLE  No.  4;;. 

Outflow  of  Steam   into  the  Atmosphere. 
D.  K.  c. 


Absoljte    initial 
pressure       in 
Ibs.  per  sq.  in. 

External      pres- 
sure    in     Ibs. 
per  sq.  in. 

Ratio  of  expan- 
sion in  nozzle. 

Velocity  of  out- 
flow   at    con- 
stant density. 

Actual     velocity 
of  outflow,  ex- 
panded. 

Discharge      per 
sq.  in    of  ori- 
fice per  min. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Ratio. 

Ft.  per  sec. 

Ft.  per  sec. 

Lbs. 

25.37 

14.7 

1.624 

863 

1401 

22.81 

30 

14.7 

1.624 

867 

1408 

26.84 

40 

14.7 

1.624 

•874 

1419 

35.18 

45 

14.7 

1.624 

877 

1424 

39.78 

50       . 

14.7 

1.624 

880 

1429 

44.06 

60 

14.7 

1.624 

885 

1437 

52.59 

70 

14.7 

1.624 

889 

1444 

61.07 

75 

14.7 

1.624 

891 

1447 

65.30 

90 

14.7 

1.624 

895 

1454 

77.94 

100 

14.7 

1.624 

898 

1459 

86.34 

115 

14.7 

1.624 

902 

1466 

98.76 

135 

14.7 

1.624 

906 

1472 

115.61 

155 

14.7 

1.624 

910 

1478 

132.21 

165 

14.7 

1.624 

912 

1481 

140.46 

215 

14.7 

1.624 

919 

1493 

181.58 

The  Economic  Value  of  Dry  Steam. 

Saturated  steam  is  defined  as  steam  of  the  maximum  pressure  and 
density  due  to  its  temperature.  It  is  steam  in  its  normal  condition,  being 
both  at  the  condensing  and  the  generating  point.  It  is  formed  thus  in  a  well- 
designed  boiler,  and  any  heat  added  would  evaporate  more  water,  while  heat 
taken  away  would  condense  some  of  the  steam.  In  badly-proportioned 
boilers,  however,  we  find  water  entrained  in  the  steam  in  the  form  of  a  fine 
mist.  This  is  caused  by  imperfect  arrangements  for  separating  the  steam 
from  the  water ;  by  a  liberating  surface  either  too  small  or  too  near  the  hot 
metal ;  by  a  cramped  or  low  steam-space;  or  by  more  heating  surface  than 
the  water-space  or  circulation  warrants.  It  is  only  during  the  last  decade 
that  the  attention  of  steam  users  generally  has  been  bent  on  getting  dry 
steam,  i.e.,  saturated  steam  containing  but  a  small  percentage  of  entrained 
water. 

Formerly,  with  long  stroke  and  slow  speed  engines,  and  when  cylinder 
condensation  was  understood  but  by  a  few  experts,  this  entrainment  was 
rarely  measured. 

In  Mr.  D.  K.  Clark's  celebrated  Manual  for  Mechanical  Engineers  (1877), 
which  contains  the  record  and  careful  analysis  of  many  notable  boiler  tests, 
entrainment  is  not  even  mentioned.  Most  of  the  high  results  of  ancient 
tests  which  are  paraded  in  advertisements  are  therefore  open  to  the  suspicion 
that  they  may  have  been  obtained  by  delivering  "  soda  water  "  in  place  of 
steam.  Since  calorimeter  tests  have  become  common,  entrainments  up  to  6 
and  10  per  cent,  have  been  found  in  boilers  apparently  giving  high  economy. 
As  early  as  1860,  Chief  Engineer  Isherwood,  of  the  U.  S.  Navy,  began 
investigating  the  economic  losses  due  to  moisture  in  the  cylinder. 


Superheated  steam  was  suggested  as  a  remedy  for  cylinder  condensation 
by  Prof.  Dixwell,  of  Boston,  early  in  1875,  and  Mr.  Him,  of  Mulhouse,  made 
extensive  and  successful  experiments  in  this  line  in  1873  and  1875  (first 
published  in  1877).  Where  good  saturated  steam  induces  such  wasteful 
condensation  in  the  cylinder,  wet  steam  greatly  increases  the  losses.  For 
the  water  cools  the  internal  surfaces  of  the  cylinder  more  rapidly  than  steam 
of  the  same  temperature,  and  this  increases  the  cylinder  condensation. 
Hence,  economic  reasons  condemned  wet  steam,  and  finally  close-coupled 
and  nigh-speed  engines  protested  against  entrainment  in  the  emphatic  language 
of  broken  valves  and  blown  out  cylinder  heads. 

Marine  boilers  are  called  upon  for  a  maximum  of  work  in  a  minimum  of 
space,  and  are  therefore  more  liable  to  entrain  water ;  this  was  especially 
the  case  with  the  low-pressures  in  use  before  1880.  We  therefore  find  super- 
heated steam  resorted  to  in  the  navy  at  an  early  day. 

Exhaustive  experiments  made  by  Mr.  Isherwood  early  in  the  sixties 
show  large  gains  in  economy  by  superheating,  and  thus  illustrate  the  losses 
due  to  water  in  the  steam. 

We  choose  only  two  examples  in  which  the  boiler  pressure  and  the  rate 
of  expansion  are  alike  ;  the  economy  found  is  therefore  clearly  due  to  super- 
heating the  steam,  or  conversely  the  loss  is  due  to  cylinder  condensation. 

TABLE  No.  44. 


NAME  OF  STEAMER. 

Pounds 
Gauge 
Pressure. 

Rate 
of 
Expansion. 

Pounds 
Coal 
Per  H.P.perh. 

Character  of  steam  used. 

Saving  in  Coal. 

Dallas 

32 

3.22 

3.80 

Saturated. 

Georgeanna  

33 

3.22 

2.58 

Superheated. 

47.3  % 

Eutaw 

27 

1.85 

3.84 

Saturated. 

Eutaw 

28 

1.85 

2.99 

Superheated. 

28.4  % 

At  the  instance  of  Prof.  Dixwell,  the  Government  in  1877  sent  Chief 
Engineers  Loring,  Baker  and  Farmer  to  Boston  to  test  the  effect  of  super- 
heated steam  on  the  small  Corliss  engine  of  the  Institute  of  Technology. 
The  boiler  pressure  throughout  the  six  tests  was  kept  uniform.  Three  dif- 
ferent rates  of  expansion  were  taken,  and  with  each,  one  test  was  run  with 
saturated  and  one  with  superheated  steam,  the  degree  of  superheat  being 
adjusted  to  the  rate  of  expansion.  The  total  steam  used  was  condensed  and 
weighed,  and  the  loss  by  cylinder  condensation  thus  accurately  determined. 

TABLE  No.  4,-.. 
Tests  of  Corliss  Engine  8"   <  24,"  Mass.  Inst.  of  Technology. 


Rate 

Pounds  steam  per  H.  P.  per  hour. 

Loss  by  moisture 

Boiler 
Pressure. 

of 
Expansion. 

Superheat. 

1st  Test, 
Superheated. 

2d  Test, 
Saturated. 

when  using 
Saturated  Steam. 

50.4 

4.05 

279°  F. 

19.39 

27.66 

42.6  % 

50.1 

2.16 

194°  F. 

21.75 

29.14 

33.9  % 

50.2 

1.44 

129°  F. 

26.48 

33.54 

26.6  % 

—  76- 


Both  series  of  experiments  show  great  losses  by  cylinder  condensation  ; 
they  show  also  that  these  losses  increase  with  the  rate  of  expansion  ;  and 
they  show  greater  losses  with  marine  than  with  land  boilers.  This  effect  of 
cylinder  condensation  and  wet  steam  can  also  be  partially  counteracted  by 
steam  or  hot  air  jackets  around  the  cylinders. 

In  his  admirable  work  on  the  Steam  Engine,  Mr.  D.  K.  Clark  gives  a 
number  of  carefully  prepared  tables  on  the  Practice  of  Expansive  Working 
in  Steam  Engines.  By  comparing  in  these  the  amount  of  steam  shown  by 
the  indicator  cards  on  the  basis  of  dry  saturated  steam  with  the  actual  feed 
water  used,  we  find  the  percentage  of  loss  due  to  cylinder  condensation  and 
entrainment.  This  is  figured  in  percentages  of  the  calculated  amounts,  and 
therefore  shows  how  much  should  be  added  to  estimates  based  on  indicator  cards 
to  find  the  actual  evaporation  necessary  for  a  required  amount  of  work  in  a 
given  engine.  The  H.  P.  of  the  engine,  the  total  initial  pressure  above 
vacuum  in  the  cylinder,  the  total  rate  of  expansion,  and  the  superheat  are 
given,  as  the  figures  can  only  be  used  under  similar  conditions. 

TABLE  No.  46. 

Table  Illustrating   Cylinder    Condensation    and   Entrainment. 

E.  D.  M. 


KIND  OF  ENGINE. 

c 
'M 
w 
"S 
a 
I 

I/I 

0>    . 

£-S 
p 

«£ 

0  => 

Superheat. 

X 

111 
"o 

II 
ll 

Pounds  Water  p. 
H.  P.  p.  hour. 

Differ'ce. 
Per  Cent. 

1  c  Jr  E 

w—  '  Q  i 

3E.3& 
S^S 

75  ? 
2  .« 

tj  33 
<£ 

<a  c  ^ 

I.  V>  V  c 
41   C         4, 

If*  I 

>>°  o  « 
UU~£ 

Porter-Allen   not  jacketed 

66. 
124.6 
149.5 
190.7 
217.0 
165.0 
138.7 
167.4 
135.8 
160.4 
141.8 
418.3 
142.4 
134.6 
111.6 
106.3 
101.8 
46.2 
27.8 
118.4 
96.3 
72.9 
78.0 
69.4 
217.6 
201.1 
204.7 
88.7 
96.5 
185.8 
171.8 
249.5 
283.1 

76 
34 
27 
36 
40 
101 
105 
105 
104 
1(3 
103 
35 
60 
54 
56 
55 
33 
51 
48 
36 
90.6 
89.7 
78.2 
89.0 
66.2 
67.6 
45.1 
24.5 
25.2 
53.2 
53.5 
79.2 
82.3 

35.5°  F. 

None. 

150°F. 

None. 
85°F. 
None. 

6.34 
3.62 
2.81 
3.66 
3.65 
6.83 
5.57 
7.39 
6.55 
6.64 
5.23 
4.69 
3.75 
3.75 
5.84 
5.84 
6.85 
11.59 
14.73 
11.35 
7.68 
7.15 
9.49 
8.25 
5.12 
3.17 
3.47 
1.76 
1.75 
3.83 
4.01 
5.41 
5.19 

24.69 
16.76 
18.59 
14.23 
16.70 
16.67 
21.49 
15.83 
21.02 
15.26 
20.80 
14.51 
16.42 
18.14 
14.20 
14.42 
22.06 
17.62 
21.44 
17.19 
16.15 
15.48 
18.08 
18.71 
18.44 
18.02 
20.79 
27.66 
29.27 
19.24 
18.27 
16.95 
16.88 

25.81 
20.72 
21.38 
18.82 
20.08 
20.37 
23.07 
19.15 
23.68 
19.22 
24.61 
17.4 
17.2 
22.41 
16.16 
19.93 
22.94 
22.32 
32.72 
22.62 
21.72 
23.34 
27.09 
3032 
20.24 
26.53 
28.09 
42.27 
37.34 
25.93 
21.86 
23.80 
21.12 

4.5% 
19.2% 
13.0% 
21.4% 
16.9$ 
18.2$ 
6.8% 
17.3% 
11.2% 
20.6% 
15.4% 
20.0% 
4.4% 
19.1% 
12.1% 
27.6% 
4.0% 
26.6% 
52.6% 
31.6$ 
34.5$ 
50.7/0 
49.8$ 
62.0% 
9.8% 
47.2% 
35.1% 
52.8% 
20.8% 
34.7% 
19.6$ 
40.5$ 
25.1$ 

Cornish    steam  jacketed 

11                             «                         14 

it                 «              n 

<(                «             (I 

Reynolds  Corliss,  not  jacketed,cond'g 
"        non-condensing--- 
Harris-Corliss,  no  jacket,  condensing 
"  non-condensing 
Wheelock,                          condensing 
"  non-condensing 
Corliss,  steam  jacket,  condensing  -- 
Him,  no  jacket   condensing 

II                        11                                        11 

11                        II                                        II 

11                           11                                           1C 

Cornish,  steam  jacket,  condensing-- 
Woolf  Comp'd  Cond'g,  steam  jacket 
no  jacket— 
Pump'g  En,  st'm  jckt 
Woolf  Comp'd  Marine,  steam1  in  jckt. 
no  jacket-- 
Same Eng,  ad  cyl.  only,  steam  jacket 
14     no  jacket-  — 
Receiver  Comp'd  Marine,  steam  jckt. 
Marine  Cond'g,  i  cylinder,  no  jacket 

11                          ((                                     («                                  41 

Single  Cylinder,  f  no  jacket  -  -- 

American,             I  steam  in  jacket  — 
Marine                  I  no  jacket  -     -  -  - 

Condensing,        1  steam  in  jacket  — 
Condensing          1  no  jacket- 

Condensing,         (steam  in  jacket-  -- 

—  77  — 


c 
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£ 

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a: 


We  see  then  that  a  calculation  of  water  consumption  from  indicator 
cards  may  be  anywhere  from  4  per  x:ent.  to  62  per  cent,  out  of  the  way. 

We  note  further  that  superheating  may  counteract  on  the  average  all 
but  7  per  cent,  of  the  loss  by  moisture  ;  careful  lagging  and  good  boilers 
may  reduce  it  to  11.2  per  cent,  in  the  best  of  non-condensing  engines  ;  steam 
jackets  in  condensing  engines  may  limit  it  to  an  average  of  22.5  per  cent., 
while  in  unjacketed  condensing  engines  we  may  expect  an  average  of  36.8 
per  cent. 

Here  again  the  land  boilers  show  their  advantage  over  the  marine  types. 
The  average  loss  in  steam  jacketed  land  engines  is  19.46  per  cent,  against 
26.6  per  cent,  for  the  same  type  of  marine  engines  ;  without  jackets  the  land 
practice  shows  21  per  cent,  loss  against  46.1  per  cent,  for  marine.  It  is 
evident  that  this  discrepancy  is  in  the  boilers,  and  not  in  the  engines,  since 
marine  engines  are  even  more  carefully  built  than  land  engines. 

In  specifying  horizontal  tubular  or  return  tubular  boilers  for  their  work, 
careful  engineers  insist  that  the  steam  shall  contain  not  more  than  2  per  cent, 
(sometimes  3  per  cent.)  of  entrained  water.  This  is  considered  good  work 
for  that  type  of  boiler,  and  ample  heating  surface,  and  large  liberating 
area  and  steam  space  are  necessary  to  attain  it. 

Well  designed  water  tube  boilers  give  much  better  results.  Several 
well  authenticated  tests  of  Heine  Safety  Boilers  record  entrainments  as  low 
as  1-8  of  1  per  cent.,  and  1-2  of  1  per  cent,  when  forcing  50  per  cent,  above 
rating,  and  from  1-12  of  1  per  cent,  entrainment  to  1-7  of  1  per  cent,  super- 
heat at  rating.  Here  then  is  a  cnance  for  economy  in  the  engine  gained  by 
the  boiler  in  addition  to  its  own  economy  in  fuel.  E.  D.  M. 

The  Rating  of  Boilers. 
R.  H.  T. 

It  is  considered  usually  advisable  to  assume  a  set  of  practically  attaina- 
ble conditions  in  average  good  practice,  and  to  take  the  power  so  obtainable 
as  the  measure  of  the  power  of  the  boiler  in  commercial  and  engineering 
transactions.  The  unit  generally  assumed  has  been  usually  the  weight  of 
steam  demanded  per  horse  power  per  hour  by  a  fairly  good  steam  engine. 
This  magnitude  has  been  gradually  decreasing  from  the  earliest  period  of  the 
history  of  the  steam  engine.  In  the  time  of  Watt,  one  cubic  foot  of  water 
per  hour  was  thought  fair ;  at  the  middle  of  the  present  century,  ten  pounds 
of  coal  was  a  usual  figure,  and  five  pounds,  commonly  equivalent  to  about 
forty  pounds  of  feed  water  evaporated,  was  allowed  the  best  engines.  After 
the  introduction  of  the  modern  forms  of  engine,  this  last  figure  was  reduced 
25  per  cent.,  and  the  most  recent  improvements  have  still  further  lessened 
the  consumption  of  fuel  and  of  steam.  By  general  consent  the  unit  has  now 
become  thirty  pounds  of  dry  steam  per  horse  power  per  hour,  which  repre- 
sents the  performance  of  good  non-condensing  mill  engines.  Large  engines, 
with  condensers  and  compounded  cylinders,  will  do  still  better.  A  committee 
of  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers  recommended  thirty 
pounds  as  the  unit  of  boiler  power,  and  this  is  now  generally  accepted.  They 
advised  that  the  commercial  horse  power  be  taken  as  an  evaporation  of  30 
founds  of  water  per  hour  from  a  feed  water  temperature  of  100°  Fahrenheit 

—  79  — 


into  steam  at  jo  pounds  gauge  pressure,  which  may  be  considered  to  be  equal 
to  34£  units  of  evaporation,  that  is,  to  34i  pounds  of  water  evaporated  from 
a  feed  water  temperature  of  212°  Fahrenheit  into  steam  at  the  same  tempera- 
ture. This  standard  is  equal  to  33,305  British  thermal  units  per  hour. 

It  was  the  opinion  of  this  committee  that  a  boiler  rated  at  any  stated 
power  should  be  capable  of  developing  that  power  with  easy  firing,  moder- 
ate draught,  and  ordinary  fuel,  while  exhibiting  good  economy,  and  at  least 
one-third  more  than  its  rated  power  to  meet  emergencies. 


Kansas  City  Water  Works, 

KANSAS  CITY,  MO. 
Contains  800  H.  P.  Heine  Boilers. 


The  Energy  Stored  in  Steam  Boilers. 
R.  H.  T. 

A  steam  boiler  is  not  only  an  apparatus  by  means  of  which  the  potential 
energy  of  chemical  affinity  is  rendered  actual  and  available,  but  it  is  also  a 
storage  reservoir,  or  a  magazine,  in  which  a  quantity  of  such  energy  is  tem- 
porarily held;  and  this  quantity,  always  enormous,  is  directly  proportional  to 
the  weight  of  water  and  of  steam  which  the  boiler  at  the  time  contains.  The 
energy  of  gunpowder  is  somewhat  variable,  but  a  cubic  foot  of  heated  water 
under  a  pressure  of  60  or  70  Ibs.  per  square  inch  has  about  the  same  energy 
as  one  pound  of  gunpowder.  At  a  low  red  heat  water  has  about  40  times 
this  amount  of  energy.  Following  are  presented  the  weights  of  steam  and  of 
water  contained  in  each  of  the  more  common  forms  of  steam  boilers,  the 
total  and  relative  amounts  of  energy  confined  in  each  under  the  usual  condi- 
tions of  working  in  everyday  practice,  and  their  relative  destructive  power 
in  case  of  explosion  : 

—  80  — 


lFf>' 

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INITIAL 
LOCITY. 


MAXIMUM 
HEIGHT  OF 
PROJECTION. 


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1—  (    T-(    T-H    1—  ( 


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-M  O  O 


—  82  — 


The  stored  available  energy  in  water-tube  boilers  is  usually  less  than 
that  of  any  of  the  other  stationary  boilers,  and  not  very  far  from  the  amount 
stored,  pound  for  pound,  by  the  plain  tubular  boiler,  the  best  of  the  older 
forms.  It  is  evident  that  their  admitted  safety  front  destructive  explosion  does 
not  come  from  this  relation,  however,  but  from  the  division  of  the  contents 
into  small  portions,  and  especially  from  those  details  of  construction  which 
make  it  tolerably  certain  that  any  rupture  shall  be  local.  A  violent  explosion 
can  only  come  of  the  general  disruption  of  a  boiler  and  the  liberation  at  once 
of  large  masses  of  steam  and  water. 


The  Mallinckrodt  Building,  St.  Louis,  Mo., 
Contains  300  H.  P.  Heine  Boilers. 


Heating  Buildings  by  Steam. 

In  heating  buildings  by  steam  we  have  two  things  to  consider.  First, 
the  amount  of  fresh  air  entering  the  building  per  hour  which  has  to  be  heated 
from  the  external  to  the  desired  internal  temperature,  and  second,  the  amount 
of  heat  to  be  supplied  to  take  the  place  of  what  is  lost  by  conduction  through 
walls,  windows,  roofs,  ceilings  and  doors  and  thence  by  radiation  and  convec- 
tion to  the  outer  air. 

It  is  generally  customary  to  assume  the  air  to  be  warmed  as  entering 
the  house  at  0°  F.,  and  in  the  United  States  the  rule  is  to  require  an  interior 
temperature  of  70°  F.  The  weight  of  1  cu.  ft.  of  air  at  0°  F.  is  0.086  Ibs  ;  its 
specific  heat  at  constant  pressure  is  0.2377  (see  Table  No.  7).  Therefore, 
to  raise  1  cu.  ft.  of  air  at  0°  F.  one  degree  in  temperature,  we  require 
0.086  X  0.2377  =  0.02  H.  U.  To  bring  it  from  0°  to  70°  will  take  1.4  H.  U. 
This  of  course  is  true  only  when  the  air  is  measured  at  the  inlet  opening  ; 
for  as  it  grows  warmer  it  expands  and  a  cu.  ft.  weighs  less. 

The  amount  of  heat  required  to  replace  that  dissipated  through  the  ex- 
posed surfaces  of  the  building  can  be  figured  from  the  following  diagram> 
Table  No.  48,  which  has  been  prepared  by  Mr.  Alfred  R.  Wolff,  M.  E.  It  is 
"the  graphical  interpretation,  in  American  units,  of  the  practice  and 
coefficients  prescribed  by  law  by  the  German  Government  in  the  design 
of  the  heating  plants  of  its  public  buildings,  and  generally  used  in 
Germany  for  all  buildings."  Mr.  Wolff  has  checked  the  coefficients  by 
examples  of  good  American  practice,  and  found  satisfactory  agreement  in  the 
results,. 

—  S3  — 


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10°  20°  30°40°  30°  60°  70°  80  90  100 

Fahrenheit.                                                    1"—  trf 

120°    140°     160°    180° 

Unfls,per8quareFoorof  Surface  ,per  Hour, 


—  84  — 


The  formula  for  the  loss  is     Q  =SxKX(* — /o). 

K  is  the  loss  by  transmission  in  B.  T.  U.  per  hour  per  square  foot  of 
outer  surface,  per  degree  F.  difference  in  temperature  on  the  two  sides. 

S the  number  of  square  feet  of  transmitting  surface, /the  interior,  ana 
/o  the  exterior  temperature  in  degrees  Fahrenheit,  of  the  air. 

The  values  of  K  are  given  in  the  following  table' 

TABLE  No.  40 

A.  R.  W. 
For  each  square  foot  of  brick  wall  of  thickness  : 


Thickness  of  brick  wall= 

4" 

8" 

12" 

16" 

20" 

24" 

28" 

32" 

36" 

40" 

J\  —~ 

0.68 

0.46 

0.32 

0.26 

0.23 

0.20 

0.174 

0.1-5 

0.129 

0.115 

1  square  foot,  wooden  beam  construction,   \  -.  as  flooring,  A"=  0.083 

planked  over,  or  ceiled  :  J  --  ---as  ceiling,  K=  0.104 

1  square  foot,  fireproof  construction,  \  ..  as  flooring,  K=  0.124 

floored  over:  /-.  as  ceiling,  A'=  0.145 

1  square  foot,  single  window K=  0.776 

1  square  foot,  single  skylight K=  1.118 

1  square  foot,  double  window A'=  0.518 

1  square  foot,  double  skylight K=  0.621 

1  square  foot,  door K=  0.414 


These  coefficients  are  to  be  increased  respectively,  as  follows: 

Ten  per  cent,  where  the  exposure  is  a  northerly  one  and  winds  are  to 
be  counted  on  as  important  factors. 

Ten  per  cent,  when  the  building  is  heated  during  the  daytime  only,  and 
the  location  of  the  building  is  not  an  exposed  one. 

Thirty  per  cent,  when  the  building  is  heated  during  the  daytime  only, 
and  the  location  of  the  building  is  exposed. 

Fifty  per  cent,  when  the  building  is  heated  during  the  winter  months 
intermittently,  with  long  intervals  (say  days  or  weeks)  of  non-heating. 

In  using  this  table  it  is  necessary  to  know  the  conditions  as  to  tempera- 
ture of  adjoining  buildings  having  the  same  party-wall  and  of  the  different 
stories,  cellar,  attic,  etc.,  of  the  building  to  be  heated.  Then  with  the  plans 
of  the  building  at  hand  the  total  square  feet  of  each  kind  of  surface  can  be 
measured  and  the  estimate  rapidly  made  from  the  diagram,  Table  No.  48,  as 
follows  : 

Find  the  difference  in  temperatures  t — /o  on  the  lower  horizontal  line ; 
run  up  the  vertical  line  thus  found  until  it  intersects  the  diagonal  line  repre- 
senting the  kind  of  surface  ;  follow  the  horizontal  line  to  the  left  and  read  on 
the  vertical  scale  the  value  of  K  (/ — /o). 

F.  i.,  70°  required  in  the  room,  temperature  of  adjoining  hallway  being 
10°.  Find  difference  60°.  The  division  wall  being  24"  ;  run  up  on  the  60° 
line  to  the  diagonal  for  24"  wall,  then  follow  the  horizontal  line  to  the  left 
and  you  find  12  H.  U.  as  the  value  of  K  (/ — /o).  Suppose  there  is  a  door  in 
the  wall ;  the  60°  line  strikes  it  midway  between  24  and  26  on  the  vertical 
scale,  hence  we  have  25  H.  U.  for  every  square  foot  of  door. 

—  85  — 


For  the  amount  of  air  which  should  be  admitted  to  each  room,  Morin 

gives 

TABLE  No.  :,o. 

Cubic  feet  of  air  required  for  ventilation  per  head  per  hour. 

Hospitals,  ordinary  maladies--  —2470 

Hospitals,  wounded,  etc.--  —3530 

Hospitals,  in  times  of  epidemic  -  -.5300 

Theatres --1585 

Assembly  rooms,  prolonged  sittings  --  --2120 

Prisons 1760 

Workshops,  ordinary --2120 

Workshops,  insalubrious  conditions '-  -.3530 

Barracks,  day  1060,  at  night-  -.1760 

Infant  schools -  706 

Adult  schools --1410 

Stables-  --7060 

Having  determined  the  total  number  of  H.  U.  required  for  each  room, 
the  kind  and  quantity  of  the  radiating  surface  is  next  to  be  determined. 

The  character  of  the  surfaces  determines  their  efficiency. 

Mr.  P.  Kaeuffer,  M.  E.,  of  Mayence,  Germany,  has  made  a  number  of 
careful  experiments  on  radiating  surfaces,  the  results  of  which,  recalculated 
for  American  units,  we  give  in 

TABLE  No.  si. 
Transmission  of  heat  by  radiating  surfaces,  per  square  foot  per  hour  in  B.T.U. 

Smooth  vertical  plane 406 

Vertical  plane  with  about  80  %  surface  in  ribs  or  corrugations 170 

Smooth  vertical  pipe  surface 480 

Vertical  tube  with  67%  of  surface  in  corrugations 221 

Horizontal  smooth  tube  or  pipe 369 

Horizontal  tube  with  67%  of  surface  in  corrugations 185 

NOTE. — This  table  is  correct  for  steam  of  15  to  22  pounds  pressure  ;  for  exhaust 
steam  reduce  in  proportion  to  temperature,  except  for  corrugated  and  ribbed  surfaces, 
which  lose  very  rapidly  for  low  steam  temperatures.  For  hot  water,  50  per  cent,  of  the 
tabular  numbers  are  approximately  correct. 

Approximately  (for  St.  Louis  conditions)  9  feet  of  1"  pipe  with  exhaust 
steam,  or  6  feet  of  1"  pipe  with  50  pounds  steam,  will  heat  1000  cubic  feet 
of  air  70°  per  hour. 

French  practice  is  about  1  square  foot  of  radiating  surface  for  230  cubic 
feet  of  space  for  exhaust  steam.  This  is  about  13  feet  run  of  1"  pipe  for 
1000  cubic  feet  of  space. 

Mr.  Wolff  gives  250  H.  U.  per  hour  per  square  foot  surface  for  ordinary 
bronzed  cast  iron  radiators,  and  400  H.  U.  for  non-painted  radiating  surfaces, 
counting  steam  pressure  from  3  to  5  pounds  per  square  inch.  (About  60% 
of  these  amounts  for  hot  water  heating.)  When  the  total  number  of  heat 
units  required  are  known  the  work  of  the  boiler  can  be  directly  estimated 
from  them  ;  bearing  in  mind  that  if  the  water  condensed  in  the  radiators  is 
returned  to  the  boiler  at  212°,  we  have  in  each  pound  of  exhaust  steam  965.8 
heat  units  available,  in  steam  of  2  pounds,  5  pounds,  or  10  pounds  gauge 
pressure,  we  have  967.5  H.  U.,  969.7  H.  U.,  or  974.1  H.  U.  respectively 
per  pound  of  steam  delivered  to  the  system. 

—  87  — 


As  we  have  seen  by  Table  No.  51.  the  effectiveness  of  radiating  sur- 
faces varies  too  much  to  make  it  the  basis  of  the  amount  of  boiler  power 
required.  Still,  for  rough  approximations  it  is  so  used  ;  some  experts  esti- 
mate a  square  foot  of  boiler-heating  surface  for  every  7  or  10  square  feet  of 
radiating  surface ;  some  go  as  far  as  1  to  15.  Mr.  Kaeuffer's  estimates  are 
for  about  1  square  foot  of  boiler  H.  S.  for  6  square  feet  of  the  best  and  18 
square  feet  of  the  poorest  radiating  surface.  (See  Table  51.)  In  roughly 
estimating  from  the  cubical  contents  of  buildings,  we  must  observe  that 
small  buildings,  having  proportionately  more  exposed  wall  and  window  sur- 
face per  1000  cubic  feet  of  contents,  require  proportionately  more  boiler 
power.  And  as  the  amount  of  ventilation  necessary  depends  on  the  nature 
of  the  use  of  the  building,  this  also  affects  the  amount  of  boiler  power 
required. 

TABLE  No.  52. 

Approximate  Number  of  Cubic   Feet  which   1   H.  P. 
in   Boiler  will   Heat. 

Hospitals,  exposition  buildings,  etc.,   with  much  window 

surface 6000  to    8000 

Dwellings,  stores,  small  shops,  etc 8000  to  12000 

Foundries,  large  workshops,  etc 8000  to  16000 

Theaters,  schools,  prisons,  churches,  etc 10000  to  18000 

Armories,  gymnasiums,  etc 15000  to  25000 

The  remarks  about  increase  in  the  value  of  K  under  Table  No.  49  apply 
directly  to  increase  in  boiler  power  for  similar  conditions. 


Heating  Liquids  by  Steam. 

Liquids  may  be  heated  by  blowing  the  steam  into  them  through  a  num- 
ber of  small  openings,  or  by  passing  the  steam  through  a  coil  of  pipe  sub- 
merged in  the  liquid,  or  by  passing  the  steam  through  an  external  casing.  In 
the  former  case  dilution  results,  and  any  impurities  in  the  steam  of  course 
enter  into  and  foul  the  liquid.  The  latter  two  methods  are  therefore  more 
frequently  adopted  in  practice.  In  heating  water,  it  is  found  that  the  work 
done  per  unit  of  surface  and  temperature  is  greatly  increased  when  boiling 
begins  and  evaporation  takes  place,  even  though  the  difference  in  temperature 
be  less.  In  this  connection  the  experiments  of  Thos.  Craddock  are  interest- 
ing. A  velocity  of  3  feet  per  second  of  the  water  doubled  the  rate  of  trans- 
mission in  still  water ;  he  found  that  this  circulation  became  more  valuable 
as  the  difference  in  temperatures  became  less. 

The  following  table  by  Mr.  Thos.  Box  illustrates  this  point.  When 
evaporation  had  set  in  and  caused  circulation,  the  effectiveness  of  the  surfaces 
was  trebled,  although  the  difference  of  temperature  was  only  one-third  of 
that  in  the  still  water,  an  apparent  nine-fold  increase. 


TABLE  No.  53. 

Table  of  Experiments  on  the  Power  of  Steam  Cased  Vessels 
and  Steam  Pipes  in  Heating  Water. 

Box. 


Temperature  of  the 
water  heated. 

Temp, 
of  the 
Steam. 

Difference  of 
Temperature   of 
Steam  and  Water. 

Units  rer  sq.  ft.  per  hr.  for 
1°  difference  of  temp. 

Kind  of  Heater. 

By  Experiment. 

By  Table. 

Mini- 
mum. 

Maxi- 
mum. 

Mean. 

Units. 

Mean. 

Units. 

Mean. 

Deg. 
65 
60 
69 

39 
46 

* 

Deg. 
110 

102  y, 

109)4 

212 
212 

Deg. 

Deg. 
212 
212 
212 

274 
274 

274 
250 

Deg.         Deg. 
147  to  202 
152  to  109>2' 
143  to  102^ 

235  to     62 
228  to     62 

62 
38 

230] 
207  I 
210  J 

335  \ 
315  J 

974  \ 
1020  J 

216 

325 
997 

f    2161 
210  I 

I   221  J 

f   3251 
\  333  J 

riooo\ 

\1000J 

216 

329 
1000 

f  Vertical  tube. 
<  Vertical  tube. 
I  Vertical  tube, 
f  Steam    cased 
<     vessel. 
1  Worm. 
f  Worm  . 
\Worm. 

212 
212 

* 

*NOTE— These  two    results  were   evaporation    of    water    already    at    212°  F.,    the  preceding    one 
showing  that  only  about  one-third  as  much  heat  was  transmitted  in  heating  still  water. 

A  remarkable  fact  was  noted  in  some  experiments  in  this  line  by  Mr. 
B.  G.  Nichol,  in  1875,  namely,  that  a  horizontal  position  of  the  pipe  was 
more  effective  than  a  vertical  one.  This  is  the  reverse  of  what  is  found  in 
heating  air.  (Compare  Table  No.  51,  Kaeuffer.) 

Safety  Valves. 

It  was  formerly  the  custom  to  proportion  the  Safety  Valves  according  to 
the  heating  surface.  But  as  the  performance  per  square  foot  of  H.  S.  varies 
widely  in  different  boilers  (from  2  to  15  Ibs.  hourly  evaporation),  the  wiser 
plan  of  giving  the  safety  valves  a  fixed  ratio  to  the  grate  area  has  been 
adopted. 

The  United  States  Treasury  Department,  through  its  Board  of  Super- 
vising Inspectors  of  Steam  Vessels  has  established  the  following  rules: 

"Lever  safety  valves  to  be  attached  to  marine  boilers  shall  have  an  area 
of  not  less  than  one  square  inch  to  two  square  feet  of  grate  surface  in  the 
boiler,  and  the  seats  of  all  such  safety  valves  shall  have  an  angle  of  inclina- 
tion of  45°  to  the  center  line  of  their  axes. 

"The  valves  shall  be  so  arranged  that  each  boiler  shall  have  one  sepa- 
rate safety  valve,  unless  the  arrangement  is  such  as  to  preclude  the  possibility 
of  shutting  off  the  communication  of  any  boiler  with  the  safety  valve,  or 
valves  employed.  This  arrangement  shall  also  apply  to  lock-up  safety 
valves  when  they  are  employed. 

"Any  spring-loaded  safety  valves  constructed  so  as  to  give  an  increased 
lift  by  the  operation  of  steam,  after  being  raised  from  their  seats,  or  any 
spring-loaded  safety  valve  constructed  in  any  other  manner,  or  so  as  to  give 
an  effective  area  equal  to  that  of  the  afore-mentioned  spring-loaded  safety 
valve,  may  be  used  in  lieu  of  the  common  lever-weighted  valves  on  all 
boilers  on  steam  vessels,  and  all  such  spring-loaded  safety  valves  shall  be 
required  to  have  an  area  of  not  less  than  one  square  inch  to  three  square 
feet  of  grate  surface  of  the  boiler,  and  each  spring-loaded  safety  valve  shall 


—  89  — 


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s— i 

O 


cu>- 


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be  supplied  with  a  lever  that  will  raise  the  valve  from  its  seat  a  distance  of 
not  less  than  that  equal  to  one-eighth  the  diameter  of  the  valve  opening,  and 
the  seats  of  all  such  safety  valves  shall  have  an  angle  of  inclination  to  the 
center  line  of  their  axis  of  45°.  But  in  no  case  shall  any  spring-loaded  safety 
valve  be  used  in  lieu  of  the  lever-weighted  safety  valve  without  having  first 
been  approved  by  the  Board  of  Supervising  Inspectors." 

This  rule,  so  far  as  it  applies  to  lever-weighted  safety  valves,  is  identical 
with  the  Board  of  Trade  Rule  of  Great  Britain. 

It  has,  however,  the  one  defect  that  it  takes  no  account  of  the  pressure 
carried.  And  a  safety  valve  of  correct  size  for  50  Ibs.  pressure  would  be 
more  than  three  times  too  large  for  200  Ibs.  pressure,  and  may  become  a 
source  of  danger. 

The  PHILADELPHIA  BOILER  LAW  takes  this  into  account  and  orders  that 
the  "least  aggregate  area  of  safety  valve  (being  the  least  sectional  area  for 
the  discharge  of  steam)  to  be  placed  upon  all  stationary  boilers  with  natural 
or  chimney  draft,  may  be  expressed  by  the  formula 

.  22.5 G 

P  +  8.62 

in  which  A  is  the  area  of  combined  safety  valves  in  inches.  G  is  area  of 
grate  in  square  feet.  P  is  pressure  of  steam  in  pounds  per  square  inch  to  be 
carried  in  the  boiler  above  the  atmosphere.  The  following  table  gives  the 
results  of  the  formula  for  one  square  foot  of  grate  as  applied  to  boilers  used 

at  different  pressures. 

TABLE  No.  54. 

Pressure  per  Square  Inch. 


10 
1.21 

20 
0.79 

30 

0.58 

40 
0.46 

50 

0.38 

60 
0.33 

70 
0.29 

80 
0.25 

90 
0.23 

100 
0.21 

1  10 
0  19 

120 
0.17 

150 
0.142 

175 
0.123 

Valve  area  in  square  inches,  corresponding  to  one  square  foot  of  grate. 

Horse-Power  and  Steam  Consumption  of  Pumping  Engines. 

Multiply  the  number  of  million  gallons  pumped  per  24  hours  by  the  total 
head  (including  suction  head),  expressed  either  in  feet  or  in  pounds.  This 
product  multiplied  by  0.176  if  the  head  is  stated  in  feet,  or  by  0.405  if  the 
head  is  given  in  pounds,  will  be  the  horse-power  of  work  done  by  the  water 
end,  or  the  horse-power  of  the  water  column.  Thus  f.  i.,  a  15  million  gallon 
engine  with  260  ft.  total  head  does  15x260x0.176  =  686.4  horse-power; 
and  a  15  million  gallon  engine  raising  water  against  a  total  pressure  of  110 
Ibs.  does  15x110x0.405  —  668.3  horse-power.  It  is  the  universal  practice 
among  engineers  to  express  the  economic  efficiency  of  a  pumping  engine  by 
what  is  called  its  "duty"  i.  e.  the  number  of  millions  of  foot  pounds  of 
work  it  will  do  for  every  hundred  pounds  of  coal  burned  under  the  boilers. 

Generally  specifications  base  the  duty  to  be  guaranteed  on  an  assumed 
evaporation  of  10:1  or  state  that  for  every  1000  Ibs.  of  steam  (measured  by 
the  boiler  feed-water)  such  duty  is  to  be  given. 

Either  method  fails  to  define  where  the  duty  of  the  boiler  ends  and  that 
of  the  engine  begins,  since  neither  states  from  what  temperature  of  feed  to 
what  pressure  of  steam  the  boilers  are  to  evaporate. 

By  the  established  practice  among  mechanical  engineers,  boiler  per- 
formances are  compared  as  to  economy  on  the  basis  of  evaporation  from  and 


—  91  — 


at  212°  F.  In  the  absence  of  any  specific  statement  the  assumed  evaporation 
of  10  to  1  would,  therefore,  be  thus  construed,  and  as  this  is  about  the  best 
performance  that  can  be  safely  counted  on  per  pound  of  best  coal,  it  virtually 
becomes  the  basis  of  calculation. 

A  pumping  engine  of  100  million  duty  will  require  19.8  Ibs.  feed-water 
per  hour  per  horse-power  of  work  in  water  column,  based  on  an  evaporation 
of  10  Ibs.  water  per  pound  of  coal  from  and  at  212°  F. 

Bui  as  pumping  engines  are  constructed  for  steam  pressures  varying 
from  75  Ibs.  for  high  pressure  single  cylinder  engines  to  175  pounds  for 
triple  expansion  ;  and  as  the  feed-water  may  be,  say  100°  F.  the  temperature 
of  the  hot  well,  or  212°  F.  from  a  good  exhaust  heater,  the  amount  of  feed- 
water  required  by  the  engine  per  horse-power  per  hour  will  vary  according 
to  these  conditions. 

The  higher  the  steam  pressure  the  greater  the  amount  of  energy  avail- 
able in  each  pound  of  steam.  The  lower  the  feed  temperature  the  larger  the 
proportion  of  the  boiler's  work  which  had  to  be  expended  in  merely  heating 
the  water  up  to  the  boiling-point.  On  this  basis  the  following  table  has 
been  figured  : 

TABLE  No.  55. 

Showing  Lbs.  Feed-Water  per  Horse-power  required  by 

Pumping  Engines  per  Hour. 

E.  D.  M. 


Duty. 

From  Feed  at  212°  F.  to  Steam  of  : 

From  Feed  at  100°  F.  to  Steam  of: 

Equivalent 
to  Boiler 
Work  in 
U.  ofE..or 
Pounds 
from  andat 
212°  F. 

75  Ibs. 

100  Ibs. 

125  Ibs. 

150  Ibs. 

175   Ibs. 

75  Ibs. 

100   Ibs. 

125  Ibs. 

150   Ibs. 

175  Ibs. 

110  Mill. 

17.37 

17.30 

17.23 

17.16 

17.09 

15.64 

15.57 

15.50 

15.44 

15.38 

18.00 

100  Mill. 

19.11 

19.03 

18.95 

18.87 

18.80 

17.20 

17.12 

17.05 

16.98 

16.92 

19.80 

90  Mill. 

21.23 

21.14 

21.06 

20.97 

20.88 

19.11 

19.02 

18.94 

18.87 

18.80 

22.00 

80  Mill. 

23.90 

23.80 

23.70 

23.60 

23.50 

21.50 

21.40 

21.31 

21.22 

21.15 

24.75 

70  Mill. 

27.30 

27.19 

27.07 

26.96 

26.86 

24.57 

24.46 

24.36 

24.26 

24.17 

28.29 

60  Mill. 

31.85 

31.71 

31.58 

31.45 

31.33 

28.67 

28.53 

28.42 

28.30 

28.20 

33.00 

50  Mill. 

38.22 

38.06 

37.90 

37.74 

37.60 

34.40 

34.24 

34.10 

33.96 

33.84 

39.60 

NOTE.    The  horse-power  is  the  H.  P.  of  the  water  column.    The  evaporation  is 
assumed    at  10  Ibs.  water  from  and  at  212°  F.  per  Ib.  of  coal. 

Economy  in  boilers  is  always  stated  in  "pounds  of  water  evaporated  from 
and  at  212°  F.  per  pound  of  fuel  "  designated  as  ''•Units  of  Evaporation." 
(See  Vol.  VI,  Transactions  Am.  Soc.  M.  E.— 1881). 

Unless  a  contract  specifically  provides  otherwise  the  '•'assumed evapora- 
tion" is  to  be  so  understood. 

The  last  vertical  column  of  the  table  gives  the  equivalent  work  for  the 
boiler  in  each  case  per  horse-power  of  the  water  column  ;  in  fact,  all  the 
figures  in  each  horizontal  line  are  exact  equivalents  of  each  other.  Again, 
comparing  the  vertical  columns  with  each  other  it  is  clear  that  an  engine  pro- 


—  92— 


vided  with  a  first-class  feed-water  heater  will  save   11.1%  over  the  same 
engine  relying  simply  on  its  hot  >vell. 

Given  an  assumed  evaporation  per  pound  of  such  coal  as  the  guarantee 
is  based  on  ;  or  the  evaporation  found  by  actual  test  of  the  boilers.  Divide 
the  figure  in  the  last  vertical  column  by  such  evaporation,  and  you  have 
the  number  of  pounds  of  the  coal  per  horse-power  in  each  case. 

E.  D.  M. 

Condensers. 
H.  R.  w. 

When  steam  expands  in  the  cylinder  of  a  steam  engine,  its  pressure 
gradually  reduces,  and  ultimately  becomes  so  small  that  it  cannot  profitably 
be  used  for  driving  the  piston.  At  this  stage  a  time  has  arrived  when  the 
attenuated  vapor  should  be  disposed  of  by  some  method,  so  as  not  to  exert 
any  back  pressure  or  resistance  to  the  return  of  the  piston.  If  there  were 
no  atmospheric  pressure,  exhausting  into  the  open  air  would  effect  the  desired 
object.  But,  as  there  is  in  reality  a  pressure  of  about  14.7  pounds  per 
square  inch,  due  to  the  weight  of  the  super-incumbent  atmosphere,  it  follows 
that  steam  in  a  non-condensing  engine  cannot  economically  be  expanded  be- 
low this  pressure,  and  must  eventually  be  exhausted  against  the  atmos- 
phere, which  exerts  a  back  pressure  to  that  extent. 

It  is  evident  that  if  this  back  pressure  be  removed,  the  engine  will  not 
only  be  aided,  by  the  exhausting  side  of  the  piston  being  relieved  of  a  resis- 
tance of  14.7  pounds  per  square  inch,  but  moreover,  as  the  exhaust  or  release 
of  the  steam  from  the  engine  cylinder  will  be  against  no  pressure,  the  steam 
can  be  expanded  in  the  cylinder  quite,  or  nearly,  to  absolute  0  of  pressure, 
and  thus  its  full  expansive  power  can  be  obtained. 

Contact,  in  a  closed  vessel,  with  a  spray  of  cold  water  or  with  one  side 
of  a  series  of  tubes,  on  the  other  side  of  which  cold  water  is  circulating,  de- 
prives the  steam  of  nearly  all  its  latent  heat,  and  condenses  it.  In  either 
case  the  act  of  condensation  is  almost  instantaneous.  A  change  of  state  oc- 
curs, and  the  vapor  steam  is  reduced  to  liquid  water.  As  this  water  of  con- 
densation only  occupies  about  one  sixteen-hundredths  of  the  space  filled  by 
the  steam  from  which  it  was  formed,  it  follows  that  the  remainder  of  the 
space  is  void  or  vacant,  and  no  pressure  exists.  Now,  the  expanded  steam 
from  the  engine  is  conducted  into  this  empty  or  vacuous  space,  and,  as  it 
meets  with  no  resistance,  the  very  limit  of  its  usefulness  is  reached. 

The  vessel  in  which  this  condensation  of  steam  takes  place  is  the  con- 
densing chamber.  The  cold  water  that  produces  the  condensation  is  the  in- 
jection water;  and  the  heated  water,  on  leaving  the  condenser  is  the  dis- 
charge water. 

To  make  the  action  of  the  condensing  apparatus  continuous,  the  flow  of 
the  injection  water,  and  the  removal  of  the  discharge  water  including  the 
water  from  the  liquif action  of  the  steam,  must  likewise  be  continuous. 

The  vacuum  in  the  condenser  is  not  quite  perfect,  because  the  cold  in- 
jection water  is  heated  by  the  steam,  and  emits  a  vapor  of  a  tension  due  to 
the  temperature.  When  the  temperature  is  no  degrees  Fahrenheit,  the 
tension  or  pressure  of  the  vapor  will  be  represented  by  about  4"  of  mercury ; 
that  is,  when  the  mercury  in  the  ordinary  barometer  stands  at  30",  a  barom- 
eter with  the  space  above  the  mercury  communicating  with  the  condenser, 

—  93  — 


Cape  Town  Tramways  Co.,  Limited, 

CAPE  TOWN,  AFRICA. 

900  H.  P.  of  Heine  Boilers. 


will  stand  at  about  26".  The  imperfection  of  vacuum  is  not  wholly  tracea- 
ble to  the  vapor  in  the  condenser,  but  also  to  the  presence  of  air,  a  small 
quantity  of  which  enters  with  the  injection  water  and  with  the  steam  ;  the 
larger  part,  however,  comes  through  air  leaks  and  faulty  connections  and 
badly  packed  stuffing  boxes.  The  air  would  gradually  accumulate  until  it 
destroyed  the  vacuum,  if  provision  were  not  made  to  constantly  withdraw  it, 
together  with  the  heated  water,  by  means  of  a  pump. 

The  amount  of  water  required  to  thoroughly  condense  the  steam  from 
an  engine  is  dependent  upon  two  conditions :  the  total  heat  and  volume  of 
the  steam,  and  the  temperature  of  the  injection  water.  The  former  repre- 
sents the  work  to  be  done,  and  the  latter  the  value  of  the  water  by  whose 
cooling  agency  the  work  of  condensation  of  the  steam  is  to  be  accomplished. 
Generally  stated,  with  26"  vacuum,  the  injection  water  at  ordinary  tempera- 
ture, not  exceeding  70  degrees  Fahrenheit,  from  20  to  30  times  the  quantity 
of  water  evaporated  in  the  boilers  will  be  required  for  the  complete  liquifac- 
tion  of  the  exhaust  steam.  The  efficiency  of  injection  water  decreases  very 
rapidly  as  its  temperature  increases,  and  at  80  degrees  and  90  degrees 
Fahrenheit,  very  much  larger  quantities  are  to  be  employed.  Under  the 
conditions  of  common  temperature  of  water  and  a  vacuum  of  26"  of  mercury, 
the  injection  water  necessary  per  H.  P.  developed  by  the  engine,  will  be 
from  1|  gallons  per  minute  when  the  steam  admission  is  for  one-fourth  of  the 
stroke,  up  to  2  gallons  per  minute  when  the  steam  is  carried  three-fourths  oi 
the  stroke  of  the  engine. 


The  power  exerted  by  a  steam  engine  during  a  single  stroke  of  a  piston, 
is  due  directly  to  the  difference  between  the  pressures  on  the  opposite  sides 
of  the  piston.  Newton  said,  "all  force  is  vis  a  tergo;"  —  a  push  from  be- 
hind. A  vacuum  does  not  in  itself  give  power.  It  only  effects  a  removal  of 
resistance  from  the  retreating  side  of  the  piston,  and  consequently  adds  just 
so  much  activeness  to  the  other,  or  pushing  side.  The  value  of  a  vacuum  of 
26"  of  mercury  to  an  engine,  may  be  generally  approximated  by  considering 
it  to  be  equivalent  to  a  net  gain  of  12  Ibs.  average  pressure  per  square  inch 
of  piston  area.  It  is  obvious  that  this  amount  of  power  gained  bears  nearly 
the  same  ratio  to  the  power  developed  by  the  engine  when  non-condensing, 
as  12  Ibs.  does  to  the  mean  effective,  or  average  pressure  of  the  steam  in  the 
cylinder.  So,  if  the  mean  effective  pressure  is  known,  a  close  idea  of  the 
percentage  of  gain  that  will  be  derived  by  the  use  of  a  vacuum  with  a  non- 
condensing  engine,  may  be  arrived  at. 

By  the  use  of  Watt's  formula,  in  which, 

A  =  Area  of  piston  in  square  inches. 

V  =  Velocity  of  piston  in  feet  per  minute. 

M.  E.  P.  =  Mean  effective  pressure  of  the  steam  in  pounds  per  square 
inch  on  the  piston. 

AXVXM.E.P. 


*3000 

And  by  substituting  12  for  M.  E.  P.,  the  value  of  vacuum  of  12  Ibs.  ex- 
pressed in  horse  power  is  found. 

AXVX12 

•  —          —      —     Horse  power  made  available  by  vacuum. 
ooUUu 

—  9f>  — 


Table  of  Mean  Effective  Pressures. 

The  following  graphical  table  will  afford  a  ready  and  comprehensive 
means  of  ascertaining  the  mean  effective  pressure  of  steam  in  an  engine 
cylinder  when  the  initial  steam  pressure  and  point  of  cut-off,  or  the  number 
of  expansions  of  the  steam,  are  known. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  "  absolute  pressure"  is  calculated  from 
the  absolute  vacuum  of  the  barometer,  while  "  gauge  pressure  "  as  indicated 
by  the  ordinary  pressure  gauge,  begins  with  atmospheric  pressure  as  its  zero ; 
consequently  "absolute  pressure"  is  nearly  15  pounds  greater  than  "  gauge 
pressure." 

TABLE  No.  56. 


Mean  Effective  Pressures. 


o    tt     o  to  co   *r     <M        o 
M0>  OF  EXPANSIONS     "[«>|    C"H'"|'-|    H       - 


/  MEAN'EFFECTIVE  PRESSURE  IN  POUNDS     /     / 

0100110    1°    13°    1°    150    1eo    * 


(From  Special  Catalogue  of  The  Worthington  Condenser.) 

The  left  hand  vertical  column  of  figures  gives  the  initial  (absolute) 
steam  pressure,  and  the  upper  horizontal  row,  the  number  of  expansions 
that  correspond  to  the  several  points  of  cut-off  ;  directly  under  this  is  a 
similar  one  of  the  mean  effective  pressures. 

—  96  — 


To  determine  the  M.  E.  P.  produced  in  an  engine  cylinder  with  an 
initial  pressure  of  90  pounds  steam  (gauge  pressure),  cut-off  at  one-quarter 
stroke,  expanded  and  finally  exhausted  into  a  vacuum  ;  add  15  to  90,  and  find 
105  in  the  initial  pressure  column  ;  follow  the  horizontal  line  to  the  right 
until  it  intersects  the  oblique  line  which  corresponds  to  ^  cut-off.  Then  read 
the  M.  E.  P.  from  the  row  of  figures  directly  above,  which  in  this  case  is  63 
pounds. 

If,  as  in  a  non-condensing  engine,  the  steam  is  exhausted  against  atmos- 
pheric pressure,  this  63  pounds  M.  E.  P.  should  be  reduced  by  15  pounds, 
giving  48  pounds  as  the  net  result.* 

By  glancing  down  and  reading  on  the  lower  scale  the  figures  directly 
under  the  48  pounds  M.  E.  P.  on  the  upper  row,  will  be  seen  the  percentage  of 
power  that  a  vacuum  will  add  to  an  engine  using  90  pounds  "gauge  pressure  " 
steam,  cut-off  at  one-quarter  stroke.  Thus,  in  this  instance,  the  value  of 
the  vacuum  is  found  to  be  between  25  and  30  per  cent  of  the  power  of  the 
engine  when  running  non-condensing. 

H.  R.  W. 


*  NOTE.— In  condensing  engines  it  will  be  safer  to  deduct  from  3  to  5  pounds  for 
imperfect  vacuum,  etc.,  and  in  non-condensing  engines  16  to  18  pounds  in  place  of  15 
for  back  pressure,  etc. 

H.  D.  M. 


Minneapolis  Industrial  Exposition  Building,  Minneapolis,  Minn., 
With  Heine  Boiler  Plant  of  1000  H.  P. 


NOTE  ON  BOILER  TESTS  :— Table  No.  57  gives  the  results  of  thirty-three  tests  made 
with  various  coals.  To  justly  estimate  the  efficiency  of  the  boiler  from  same,  compare  the 
heat  values  of  the  coals  as  given  in  Table  12. 

—  97  — 


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—98— 


CODE  OF  RULES  FOR  BOILER  TESTS. 

Recommended  by  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  November,  1884. 

A  Committee  of  the  Society  is  now  engaged  on  a  new  and  more  complete  Code  of  Rules, 
which  is  to  suggest  Standard  Coals  for  different  localities. 

Starting  and  Stopping  a  Test. 

A  test  should  1-ast  at  least  ten  hours  of  continuous  running,  and  twenty- 
four  hours  whenever  practicable.  The  conditions  of  the  boiler  and  furnace 
in  all  respects  should  be,  as  nearly  as  possible,  the  same  at  the  end  as  at  the 
beginning  of  the  test.  The  steam  pressure  should  be  the  same,  the  water- 
level  the  same,  the  fire  upon  the  grates  should  be  the  same  in  quantity  and 
condition,  and  the  walls,  flues,  etc.,  should  be  of  the  same  temperature.  To 
secure  as  near  an  approximation  to  exact  uniformity  as  possible  in  conditions 
of  the  fire  and  in  the  temperatures  of  the  walls  and  flues,  the  following 
method  of  starting  and  stopping  a  test  should  be  adopted : 

Standard  Method. — Steam  being  raised  to  the  working  pressure,  remove 
rapidly  all  the  fire  from  the  grate,  close  the  damper,  clean  the  ash-pit,  and 
as  quickly  as  possible,  start  a  new  fire  with  weighed  wood  and  coal,  noting 
the  time  of  starting  the  test  and  the  height  of  the  water-level  while  the 
water  is  in  a  quiescent  state,  just  before  lighting  the  fire. 

At  the  end  of  the  test,  remove  the  whole  fire,  clean  the  grates  and  ash- 
pit, and  note  the  water-level  when  the  water  is  in  a  quiescent  state  ;  record 
the  time  of  hauling  the  fire  as  the  end  of  the. test.  The  water-level  should 
be  as  nearly  as  possible  the  same  as  at  the  beginning  of  the  test.  If  it  is  not 
the  same,  a  correction  should  be  made  by  computation,  and  not  by  operating 
pump  after  test  is  completed.  It  will  generally  be  necessary  to  regulate  the 
discharge  of  steam  from  the  boiler  tested  by  means  of  the  stop-valve  for  a 
time  while  fires  are  being  hauled  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end  of  the  test, 
in  order  to  keep  the  steam  pressure  in  the  boiler  at  those  times  up  to  the 
average  during  the  test. 

Alternate  Method. — Instead  of  the  Standard  Method  above  described, 
the  following  may  be  employed  where  local  conditions  render  it  necessary  : 

At  the  regular  time  for  slicing  and  cleaning  fires  have  them  burned 
rather  low,  as  is  usual  before  cleaning,  and  then  thoroughly  cleaned ;  note 
the  amount  of  coal  left  on  the  grate  as  nearly  as  it  can  be  estimated  ;  note 
the  pressure  of  steam  and  the  height  of  the  water-level — which  should  be  at 
the  medium  height  to  be  carried  throughout  the  test — at  the  same  time  ;  and 
note  this  time  as  the  time  of  starting  the  test.  Fresh  coal,  which  has  been 
weighed,  should  now  be  fired.  The  ash-pits  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned 
at  once  after  starting.  Before  the  end  of  the  test  the  fires  should  be  burned 
low,  just  as  before  the  start,  and  the  fires  cleaned  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
leave  the  same  amount  of  fire,  and  in  the  same  condition,  on  the  grates  as  at 
the  start.  The  water-level  and  steam  pressure  should  be  brought  to  the 
same  point  as  at  the  start,  and  the  time  of  the  ending  of  the  test  should  be 
noted  just  before  fresh  coal  is  fired. 

—  99  — 


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During  the  Test. 


Keep  the  Conditions  Uniform. — The  boiler  should  be  run  continuously, 
without  stopping  for  meal-times  or  for  rise  or  fall  of  pressure  of  steam  due  to 
change  of  demand  for  steam.  The  draught  being  adjusted  to  the  rate  of 
evaporation  or  combustion  desired  before  the  test  is  begun,  it  should  be 
retained  constant  during  the  test  by  means  of  the  damper. 

If  the  boiler  is  not  connected  to  the  same  steam-pipe  with  other  boilers, 
an  extra  outlet  for  steam  with  valve  in  same  should  be  provided,  so  that  in 
case  the  pressure  should  rise  to  that  at  which  the  safety  valve  is  set,  it  may 
be  reduced  to  the  desired  point  by  opening  the  extra  outlet,  without  checking 
the  fires. 

If  the  boiler  is  connected  to  a  main  steam-pipe  with  other  boilers,  the 
safety  valve  on  the  boiler  being  tested  should  be  set  a  few  pounds  higher 
than  those  of  the  other  boilers,  so  that  in  case  of  a  rise  in  pressure  the  other 
boilers  may  blow  off,  and  the  pressure  be  reduced  by  closing  their  dampers, 
allowing  the  damper  of  the  boiler  being  tested  to  remain  open,  and  firing  as 
usual. 

All  the  conditions  should  be  kept  as  nearly  uniform  as  possible,  such  as 
force  of  draught,  pressure  of  steam,  and  height  of  water.  The  time  of  clean- 
ing the  fires  will  depend  upon  the  character  of  the  fuel,  the  rapidity  of  com- 
bustion, and  the  kind  of  grates.  When  very  good  coal  is  used,  and  the 
combustion  not  too  rapid,  a  ten-hour  test  may  be  run  without  any  cleaning 
of  the  grates,  other  than  just  before  the  beginning  and  just  before  the  end 
of  the  test.  But  in  case  the  grates  have  to  be  cleaned  during  the  test,  the 
intervals  between  one  cleaning  and  another  should  be  uniform. 

Keeping  the  Records. — The  coal  should  be  weighed  and  delivered  to  the 
firemen  in  equal  portions,  each  sufficient  for  about  one  hour's  run,  and  a 
fresh  portion  should  not  be  delivered  until  the  previous  one  has  all  been  fired. 
The  time  required  to  consume  each  portion  should  be  noted,  the  time  being 
recorded  at  the  instant  of  firing  the  first  of  each  new  portion.  It  is  desirable 
that  at  the  same  time  the  amount  of  water  fed  into  the  boiler  should  be 
accurately  noted  and  recorded,  including  the  height  of  the  water  in  the  boiler, 
and  the  average  pressure  of  steam  and  temperature  of  feed  during  the  time. 
By  thus  recording  the  amount  of  water  evaporated  by  successive  portions  of 
coal,  the  record  of  the  test  may  be  divided  into  several  divisions,  if  desired, 
at  the  end  of  the  test,  to  discover  the  degree  of  uniformity  of  combustion, 
evaporation,  and  economy  at  different  stages  of  the  test. 

Priming  Tests. — In  all  tests  in  which  accuracy  of  results  is  important, 
calorimeter  tests  should  be  made  of  the  percentage  of  moisture  in  the  steam, 
or  of  the  degree  of  super-heating.  At  least  ten  such  tests  should  be  made 
during  the  trial  of  the  boiler,  or  so  many  as  to  reduce  the  probable  average 
error  to  less  than  one  per  cent,  and  the  final  records  of  the  boiler  test  cor- 
rected according  to  the  average  results  of  the  calorimeter  tests. 

On  account  of  the  difficulty  of  securing  accuracy  in  these  tests  the  greatest 
care  should  be  taken  in  the  measurements  of  weights  and  temperatures. 
The  thermometers  should  be  accurate  to  within  a  tenth  of  one  degree,  and 
the  scales  on  which  the  water  is  weighed  to  within  one-hundreth  of  a  pound. 

—101  — 


Analyses  of  Gases.    Measurement  of  Air  Supply,  Etc. 

In  tests  for  purposes  of  scientific  research,  in  which  the  determination  of 
all  the  variables  entering  into  the  test  is  desired,  certain  observations  should 
be  made  which  are  in  general  not  necessary  in  tests  for  commercial  purposes. 
These  are  the  measurement  of  the  air  supply,  the  determination  of  its 
contained  moisture,  the  measurement  and  analysis  of  the  flue  gases,  the 
determination  of  the  amount  of  heat  lost  by  radiation,  of  the  amount  of  infil- 
tration of  air  through  the  setting,  the  direct  determination  by  calorimeter 
experiments  of  the  absolute  heating  value  of  the  fuel,  and  (by  condensation 
of  all  the  steam  made  by  the  boiler)  of  the  total  heat  imparted  to  the  water. 

The  analysis  of  the  flue  gases  is  an  especially  valuable  method  of  deter- 
mining the  relative  value  of  different  methods  of  firing,  or  of  different  kinds 
of  furnaces.  In  making  these  analyses  great  care  should  be  taken  to  procure 
average  samples,  since  the  composition  is  apt  to  vary  at  different  points  of 
the  flue,  and  the  analyses  should  be  intrusted  only  to  a  thoroughly  competent 
chemist,  who  is  provided  with  complete  and  accurate  apparatus. 

As  the  determination  of  the  other  variables  mentioned  above  are  not 
likely  to  be  undertaken  except  by  engineers  of  high  scientific  attainments,  and 
as  apparatus  for  making  them  is  likely  to  be  improved  in  the  course  of  scien- 
tific research,  it  is  not  deemed  advisable  to  include  in  this  code  any  specific 
directions  for  making  them. 

RECORD  OF  THE  TEST. 

A  "  log  "  of  the  test  should  be  kept  on  properly  prepared  blanks  con- 
taining headings  as  follows  : 

TABLE  No.  58. 


PRESSURES. 

TEMPERATURES. 

FUEL. 

FEED  WATER. 

U 

oi 

hJI 

£ 

a 

*^ 

TIME. 

Baromete 

Steam  gau 

Draft  gau 

External  a 

Boiler  roo 

3 

c 

Feed  wate 

| 

I 

H 

Pounds. 

V 

£ 
H 

3 
U 

0 

.O 
«J 

• 

REPORTING  THE  TRIAL. 

The  final  results  should  be  recorded  upon  a  properly  prepared  blank, 
and  should  include  as  many  of  the  following  items  as  are  adapted  for  the 
specific  object  for  which  the  trial  is  made.  The  items  marked  with  a  *  may 
be  omitted  for  ordinary  trials,  but  are  desirable  for  comparison  with  similar 
data  from  other  sources. 


-102— 


TABLE  No.  59. 


Results  of  the  trials  of  a-- 
Boiler  at 

To  determine -- 

1.  Date  of  trial 

2.  Duration  of  trial  --  hours. 

DIMENSIONS  AND  PROPORTIONS. 
(Leave  space  for  complete  description). 

3.  Grate-surface wide long---  --area --  sq.ft. 

4.  Water-heating  surface--  sq.  ft. 
fl.  Superheating-surface ---  sq.ft. 

6.  Ratio  of  water-heating  surface  to  grate-surface-- 

AVERAGE  PRESSURES. 

7.  Steam-pressure  in  boiler,  by  gauge Ibs. 

*8.  Absolute  steam-pressure--  Ibs. 

*9.  Atmospheric  pressure,  per  barometer--  in. 

10.  Force  of  draught  in  inches  of  water in. 

AVERAGE  TEMPERATURES. 

*11.  Of  external  air deg. 

*12.  Of  fire-room deg. 

*13.  Of  steam deg. 

14.  Of  escaping  gases--  deg. 

15.  Of  feed-water--  deg. 

FUEL. 

16.  Total  amount  of  coal  consumed Ibs. 

17.  Moisture  in  coal -  per  cent. 

18.  Dry  coal  consumed---  Ibs. 

19.  Total  refuse,  dry pounds=--  -  per  cent. 

20.  Total  combustible  (dry  weight  of  coal,  item  18,  less 

refuse,   item   191 Ibs. 

*21.  Dry  coal  consumed  per  hour--  Ibs. 

*22.  Combustible  consumed  per  hour--  Ibs. 

RESULTS  OF  CALORIMETRIC  TESTS. 

23.  Quality  of  steam,  dry  steam  being  taken  as  unity- - 

24.  Percentage  of  moisture  in  steam per  cent. 

25.  Number  of  degrees  superheated--  deg. 

WATER. 

26.  Total  weight  of  water  pumped  into  boiler  and  ap- 

parently evaporated  --  Ibs. 

27.  Water  actually  evaporated,  corrected  for  quality  of 

steam Ibs. 

28.  Equivalent  water  evaporated  into  dry  steam  from 

and  at  212'  F Ibs. 

*29.  Equivalent  total  heat  derived  from  fuel  in  B.  T.  U--  B.  T.  U. 
f30.  Equivalent  water  evaporated  into  dry  steam  from 

and  at  212°  F.  per  hour--  Ibs. 

ECONOMIC  EVAPORATION. 

31.  Water  actually  evaporated  per  pound  of  dry  coal, 

from  actual  pressure  and  temperature Ibs. 

32.  Equivalent  water  evaporated  per  pound  of  dry  coal, 

from  and  at  212°  F Ibs. 

33.  Equivalent  water  evaporated  per  pound  of  combusti-! 

ble  from  and  at  212°  F Ibs. 

COMMERCIAL  EVAPORATION. 

34.  Equivalent  water  evaporated  per  pound  of  dry  coal 

with  one-sixth  refuse,  at  70  Ibs.  gauge  pressure, 
from  temperature  of  100°  F.  =  item  33X0.7249 
pounds Ibs. 


t  Corrected  for  inequality  of  water  level  and  of  steam  pressure  at  beginning  and  end 
of  test. 

—103— 


TABLE  NO.  59.— Continued. 


35. 


*37. 

*38. 


39. 


RATE  OF  COMBUSTION. 

Dry  coal  actually  burned  per  square  foot  of  grate- 
surface  per  hour  .............................................................. 

"1     Per  sq.  ft.  of  grate 

Consumption  of  dry  coal 
per  hour.   Coal  assumed 

-  t    oleast 


with  one-sixth  refuse. 


j        area  for  draught.. 
RATE  OF  EVAPORATION. 

Water  evaporated  from  and  at  212°  F.  per  square  foot 

of  heating  surface  per  hour : 

Per  sq.  ft.  of  grate- 
Water  evaporated  per  hour        surface 
from  temperature  of  100° 
F.  into  steam  of  70  Ibs. 
gauge  pressure. 


Per  sq.  ft.  of  heat- 
ing surface  ............ 

Per  sq.  ft.  of  least 
area  for  draught. 


44. 
45. 


COMMERCIAL  HORSE-POWER. 

On  basis  of  30  Ibs.  of  water  per  hour  evaporated 
from  temperature  of  100°  F.  into  steam  of  70  Ibs. 
gauge  pressure  (34^  Ibs.  from  and  at  212°)  .......... 

Horse-power,  builders'  rating,  at  .............  square  feet 

per  horse-power  ............................................................ 

Per  cent,  developed  above,  or  below,  rating  .......... 


Ibs. 
Ibs. 
Ibs. 
Ibs. 

Ibs. 
Ibs. 
Ibs. 
Ibs. 


H.  P. 

H.  P. 

per  cent. 


NOTE.— Items  20,  22,  33,  34,  36,  37,  38  are  of  little  practical  value.  For  if  the  result 
proves  to  be  less  satisfactory  than  expected  on  the  actual  coal,  it  is  easy  for  an  expert 
fireman  to  decrease  No.  20  by  simply  raking  out  some  partly-consumed  coal  in  cleaning 
fires,  and  thus  making  a  fine  showing  on  that  simply  ideal  or  theoretical  unit,  the  "pound 
combustible."  The  question  at  issue  is  always  what  can  be  done  with  an  actual  coal,  not 
the  "assumed  coal"  of  items  34,  36,  37  and  38. 

E.  D.  M. 


Hauling  a  250  H.  P.  Heine  Boiler  up  a  Mountain. 


rn 


Cu 

3 


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r-  m 


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o 


CONDENSATION  OF  STEAM  IN  PIPES. 

When  steam  pipes  are  exposed  to  the  open  air,  the  steam  condenses 
more  or  less  rapidly,  according  to  the  condition  of  the  surfaces  and  the 
temperature  and  rate  of  motion  of  the  air.  This  loss  is  quite  serious  in 
itself  and  further  increases  the  losses  by  cylinder  condensation,  as  indicated 
on  page  77. 

Experiments  made  by  different  parties  in  still  air  gave  the  following 
results : 

TABLE  No.  60. 

Condensation  in  Uncovered  Pipes. 


OBSERVER. 

Difference  of 
Temperature  of  Steam 
and  Air. 

Steam  Condensed 
per  Square  Foot  per 
Hour,  per  1°  F. 

H.  U.  Lost  per 
Square  Foot  per  Hour, 
per  1"  F. 

Tregold 

161°  F. 

0.0022    Ib. 

2.100 

Burnat  

196.6°  F. 

0.0030    Ib. 

2.864 

Clement  

151°  F. 

0.00217  Ib. 

2.071 

Grouvelle     

168°  F. 

0.0020    Ib. 

1.909 

Average  for  steam  of  20 
Ibs.  absolute  pressure  

169°  F. 

0.00235  Ib. 

2.236 

We  further  give  an  abstract  of  the  results  of  a  careful  series  of  tests 
made  by  Mr.  George  M.  Brill,  M.  E.,  in  1895,  with  the  best  modern  cover- 
ings, and  with  the  most  accurate  instruments.  The  steam  pressure  carried 
ran  between  110  and  119  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  and  the  temperature  of  the 
air  varied  from  50°  to  81°  F.  in  the  various  tests. 

For  the  purposes  of  these  tests  about  60  feet  of  standard  8 -inch  wrought 
pipe,  coupled  together,  in  order  to  make  it  smooth  and  regular,  was  sus- 
pended where  it  could  not  be  subjected  to  currents  of  air.  In  order  to  get 
the  steam  as  dry  as  possible  it  was  sent  through  a  separator  on  its  way  to 
the  test  pipe,  and  in  the  short  connection  between  the  separator  and  the 
pipe  was  placed  a  throttling  calorimeter.  The  test  pipe  had  an  inclination 
of  one  foot  in  its  entire  length,  which  insured  drainage  of  all  the  water  of 
condensation  to  the  lower  end,  at  which  point  the  receiver  was  connected, 
and  into  which  the  water  gravitated  as  rapidly  as  formed.  The  water  was 
measured  in  this  receiver,  which  consisted  of  four  feet  of  12 -inch  pipe,  with 
graduated  water  glasses  attached  near  the  top  and  bottom.  The  same  vol- 
ume of  water  was  allowed  to  collect  each  time,  was  measured  under  the 
steam  pressure,  and  blown  from  the  receiver  at  the  end  of  the  run.  A  care- 
ful determination  was  made  of  the  amount  of  water  collected  by  weighing 
the  same  volume  while  cold,  and  correcting  for  difference  in  weight  due  to 
the  difference  in  temperature  for  the  respective  runs. 


—106- 


The  tests  were  made  upon  a  scale  large  enough — in  fact,  upon  a  pipe 
of  the  size  and  length  which  is  very  common  in  the  average  power  plant — 
with  sufficient  care,  and  in  a  manner  to  insure  accuracy  in  the  results  ob- 
tained, and  are  consequently  of  much  interest  and  value  to  all  users  of 
steam. 

The  results  reduced  to  the  proper  units  are  given  in  Table  No.  61 
below,  and  may  be  taken  as  fairly  representative  of  the  best  modern  prac- 
tice. Of  course,  whenever  steam  pipes  are  placed  where  they  are  exposed 
to  currents  of  air,  the  amount  of  condensation  will  be  much  greater  than  the 
tabular  numbers. 

This  table  also  gives  the  saving  in  pounds  of  steam,  and  in  dollars  and 
cents  due  to  the  use  of  coverings.  This  saving  is  based  on  the  assumption 
that  coal  costs  $2.44  per  ton,  and  adding  12  per  cent  for  cost  of  firing,  and 
taking  7  Ibs.  water  per  Ib.  of  coal  as  an  evaporative  figure,  which  are  rough 
approximations  to  average  American  conditions. 


TABLE  NO.  61. 

Showing  Radiation  Due  to  Bare  and  Covered  Pipes,  and  Sav- 
ing Due  to  Coverings. 


1SI& 

ii&i 

•O  41  0)  f 
|ll| 

V 

b.    <U 

!! 

5(/3Q  « 

•ai/)Q  «j 

g« 

>  u 

ii 

g  v  v  c 

a* 

OU. 

KINDS  OF  COVERING. 

t.  o>  u 

5.S.— 

E4.     1) 

0 

S  u' 

Qg 

^|£s  . 

.•c  ^  £  a) 

rt  3  B-B 

«  eg;  u 
vjl  „  5  <u 

His 

^§•2 

(AVi>> 

C    BJ    1. 

—  3  n! 
ML?.* 

c(/3>- 

H  u  8  it  £ 

:  uO«s  a 

OJO.a.Qrt 

|sJSsl 

§s& 

I« 

Bare  Pipe  

2.7059 

.003107 

Magnesia  

.3838 

.000432 

635,801 

$110  82 

Rock  Wool  .  .. 

.2556 

.000285 

670,666 

116  90 

Mineral  Wool 

.2846 

000311 

662,957 

115  55 

Fire  Felt  

.5023 

.000591 

603,389 

105  17 

Manville  Sectional 

.3496 

.000409 

645,174 

112  45 

Manville  Sectional   and 

Hair  Felt  

.2119 

.000243 

682,930 

119.03 

Manville  Wool  Cement.. 

.3448 

.000410 

646,488 

112.68 

Champion  Mineral  Wool, 

.3166 

.000364 

654,197 

114.03 

Hair  Felt  

.4220 

.000472 

625,376 

109.00 

Riley  Cement  

.9531 

.001089 

479,960 

83.66 

Fossil  Meal  ..  . 

.8787 

.001010 

500,284 

87.20 

The  presence  of  sulphur  in  the  best  coverings  and  its  recognized  injur- 
ious effects,  makes  it  imperative  that  moisture  must  be  kept  from  the  cov- 
erings, for  if  present,  will  surely  combine  with  the  sulphur,  thus  making  it 
active.  This  could  be  stated  in  other  words,  keep  the  pipes  and  covering  in 
good  repair.  Much  of  the  inefficiency  of  coverings  is  due  to  the  lack  of 
attention  given  them ;  they  are  often  seen  hanging  loosely  from  the  pipe 
which  they  are  supposed  to  protect. 


—107— 


All  coverings  should  be  looked  after  at  least  once  a  year  and  given  nec- 
essary repairs,  refitted  to  the  pipe,  the  spaces  due  to  shrinkage  taken  up, 
for  little  can  be  expected  from  the  best  non-conductors  if  they  are  allowed 
to  become  saturated  with  water,  or  if  air  currents  are  permitted  to  circulate 
between  them  and  the  pipe. 

As  a  very  rough  approximation  we  may  say  that  each  10  square  feet  of 
uncovered  pipe  will  condense,  in  winter,  105  Ibs.  of  steam  during  a  day  of 
ten  hours.  Under  the  same  conditions,  the  same  pipe  protected  with  the 
best  covering  will  condense  approximately  8£  Ibs.  steam. 

In  summer  these  figures  will  be  reduced  respectively  to  80  Ibs.  and 
6£  Ibs.  of  steam. 

Moisture  in  steam  at  the  end  of  a  long  pipe  line  is  often  erroneously 
attributed  to  priming  of  the  boiler;  whereas,  it  is  really  due  to  condensation. 
The  amount  of  steam  condensed  is  really  but  a  very  small  proportion  of  the 
total  steam  passing  through  the  pipe,  but  gradually  collecting  at  some  point 
in  the  line,  it  is  carried  along  in  a  body  at  intervals,  producing  the  effects 
of  entrained  water. 


Denver  Consolidated  Electric  Light  Co., 

DENVER,  COLO. 
Contains  3500  H.  P.  of  Heine  Boilers. 


—108— 


CHIMNEYS  AND  DRAFT. 

According  to  Data  and  Rules  given  in  our  article  on  Combustion  (p.  13, 
etc.)?  we  find  that  from  12  to  14  Ibs.  of  air  are  required  per  pound  of  coal. 
Anthracites  require  the  least,  bituminous  coals  more  in  proportion  to  their 
excess  in  volatile  constituents.  Most  authorities  consider  a  surplus  of  air 
requisite  for  complete  combustion,  so  that  a  total  amount  varying  from  18  to 
24  Ibs.  of  air  per  pound  of  coal  is  advised  by  various  authors. 

Taking  13  Ibs.  as  the  average  amount  of  air  chemically  required,  and 
the  air  at  62°  F.  and  chimney  gases  at  500°  F.,  this  means  that  in  order  to 
attain  perfect  combustion  we  must  sacrifice  from  6  to  12  per  cent  of  the  calo- 
rific value  of  every  pound  of  coal  we  burn  in  drawing  "  surplus  "  air  through 
the  furnace.  Besides  this,  there  is  a  loss  in  the  cooling  of  the  gases,  and 
thus  lessening  the  quantity  of  heat  transmitted  to  the  boiler.  A  thorough 
mixture  of  the  air  and  the  coal  gas  would  do  away  with  the  necessity  of  most 
of  this  surplus  air  and  thus  prevent  these  losses.  We  have  seen  (pp.  14, 
15)  that  an  increase  in  the  rate  and  temperature  of  combustion  reduces  the 
proportion  of  surplus  air  required.  This  means  reduced  grate  area  and  in- 
creased draft,  and  points  to  high  chimneys. 

What  we  call  draft  is  simply  the  fall  of  the  heavier  (because  colder) 
outside  air  to  supply  the  place  of  the  lighter  (because  heated)  gases  which 
rise  from  the  furnace  to  escape  through  the  chimney.  We  cause  it  artificially 
in  a  furnace  just  as  wind  is  caused  by  the  heat  of  the  sun  in  nature. 

The  difference  in  weight  of  the  column  of  hot  gas  in  the  chimney  and 
that  of  a  column  of  the  outside  air  of  the  same  height  is  the  force  which 
causes  the  draft. 

It  is  customary  to  measure  the  draft  in  inches  of  water.  We  will  assume 
the  external  air  to  be  at  62°  F.  and  that  in  the  chimney  at  500°  F.  A  cubic 
foot  of  air  at  62°  F.  weighs  0.0761  Ibs.;  and  at  500°  it  weighs  0.0413  Ibs.;  the 
difference  is  0.0348  Ibs.  For  a  chimney  100  ft.  high  we  would  have  on  every 
square  foot  of  its  cross  section  at  the  bottom  an  upward  pressure  of  100  times 
0.0348  Ibs.  =  3.48  Ibs.  A  cubic  foot  of  water  at  62°  F.  weighs  62. 32  lb., 
i.  e.,  a  column  of  water  12"  high  exerts  a  pressure  of  62.32  Ibs.  per  square 
foot  on  its  base;  i"  of  water  therefore  means  a  pressure  of  5.193  Ibs.  on  a 
square  foot  or  one  of  o.  577  ounces  on  a  square  inch.  Our  loo-ft.  stack 
therefore  shows  a  draft  of  3.48-^-5.193,  equals  0.67  inches  of  water  or  about 
0.39  ounces  of  pressure  per  square  inch. 

In  the  above  we  have  considered  the  gases  in  the  stack  as  of  the  same 
specific  gravity  as  air.  But  this  is  not  true.  The  chimney  gases  are  a 
mixture  of  carbonic  acid  gas  nitrogen  and  gaseous  steam,  complete  combus- 
tion being  assumed. 

Carbonic  acid  gas  has  a  specific  gravity  of  1.529;  nitrogen  of  0.971; 
steam  of  0.624 ;  air  being  taken  as  the  basis  =  i. 

Hence  in  place  of  air  at  500°  F.  weighing  0.413  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot,  we 
have  a  mixture  of  gases  whose  weight  varies  with  the  varying  amounts  of 

—109— 


-I  ^utniL<v&.  X-v**. 


lid 


Brick  Chimney  at  the  Omaha  &  Grant  Smelting  and  Refining  Works, 

DENVER,  COLO. 
Designed  by  Wm.  M.  Scanlan. 


each  constituent.  These  differ  with  different  coals,  and  therefore  different 
kinds  of  coal  will  cause  differences  in  the  draft  of  a  given  chimney,  even 
when  the  temperatures  involved  are  the  same.  The  following  table  gives 
for  five  well  known  coals  the  number  of  pounds  of  air  required  per  100  Ibs. 
of  coal  burnt,  weights  of  the  resultant  gases,  the  number  of  cubic  feet  oi 
chimney  gases  at  500°  F.  and  the  weight  per  cubic  foot  of  the  mixture,  at 
this  temperature  in  the  chimney. 

TABLE    No.    63. 


KIND  OF  COAL. 

Reference  Letter. 

PER  CENT. 

PER  100  LBS.  COAL. 

Moisture. 

Fixed  Carbon. 

Volatile  Matter. 

A 

<D 

Air  necessary  for 
complete  com- 
bustion. 

Total  weight  of 
chimney  gases, 
Ibs. 

Cubic  feet  chim- 
ney gases  at 
500°  F. 

Weight  per  cubic 
foot  chimney 
gases  at  5oO°F. 

Anthracite  (Pa  )  

A 
NR 
Y 
MO 
C 

1.81 

2.00 
6.80 
9.00 

86.75 

77.00 
59.00 

6.18 
18.00 

33.00 
37.00 
46.00 

5.26 
5.00 
6.00 
10.20 
13.00 

1279 
1385 
1448 
1353 
1345 

1374 

1480 
1542 
1443 
1432 

31440 
34454 
36367 
34711 

35052 

0.0437 
0.0429 
0.0424 
0.0416 
0.0408 

New  River   (Bit.)  

Youghiogheny  "     

Mt   Olive         "     

46.00 
32.00 

Collinsville      "     

These  different  weights  of  the  gases  of  combustion  then  cause  differ- 
ences in  draft  power  of  the  same  chimney,  even  when  the  temperatures 
of  the  gases  and  of  the  outer  air  are  the  same  in  all  cases.  Table  No. 
€4  is  figured  for  certain  average  conditions  of  practice.  The  last  line  is 
added  to  show  the  results  as  usually  figured  on  the  assumption  that  the 
chimney  gases  have  the  same  weight  as  air. 


TABLE    No.    64. 


Draft  Pressures  Due  to  Different  Coals,  with  Different  Tem- 
peratures of  Air,  but  same  Chimney  Temperature.  Chimney 
100  Feet  high  above  Grates. 


•Gases  of  Com- 
bustion 
from 

Weight 
1  Cubic  Foot 
at  500°  V. 

Weight 
1  Cubic  Foot 
Air  at  0*  F. 

Draft  in 
inches 
of  Water. 

Weight 
1  Cubic  Foot 
Air  at  62°F. 

Draft  in 
inehes 
of  Water. 

Weight 
ICubicFoot 
Air  at  102°F 

Draft  in 
inches 
of  Water. 

A  

0  0437 

0    0864 

0   822 

0    0761 

0    624 

0   0707 

0    520 

N.  R  

0.0429 

0  0864 

0  837 

0  0761 

0  639 

0  0707 

0  535 

Y  

0.0424 

0  0864 

0  847 

0  0761 

0.649 

0.0707 

0  545 

M.  O  

0.0416 

0.0864 

0.863 

0.0761 

0.664 

0.0707 

0.56C 

C  

0.0408 

0.0864 

0.878 

0.0761 

0.680 

0.0707 

0.576 

Air  

0.0413 

0.0864 

0.869 

0.0761 

0.670 

0.0707 

0.565 

—111— 


The  table  further  shows  that  difference  in  temperature  of  the  outer  air 
may  affect  the  draft  of  the  chimney  to  the  amount  of  50  per  cent  and  over. 
In  practice  we  find  sometimes  too  little  air,  which  shows  inexcusably  bad 
design  or  management,  sometimes  (though  rarely)  just  enough,  and  some- 
times (see  p.  15)  amounts  of  surplus  air  varying  from  10  per  cent,  to  100 
per  cent.  In  the  former  case  we  have  imperfect  combustion  which  may  mean 
a  waste  of  the  entire  volatile  portion  of  the  fuel,  which  by  Table  63  may  run 
up  to  20  per  cent  and  more  of  actual  loss. 

In  the  other  cases  we  have  to  draw  into  the  furnace,  heat  and  expel 
through  the  chimney  varying  quantities  of  inert  air,  which  again  represent 
various  percentages  of  Joss.  The  following  table  illustrates  this  : 

TABLE    No.    65. 

Showing  Weight  and  Volume  of  Chimney  Gases  from  100  IDS. 
each  of  Various  Coals  at  500°  F.  on  the  Assumption  of  Various 
Percentages  of  Surplus  Air. 


Kef. 
Letter 

10%  SURPLUS  AIR. 

25%  SURPLUS  AIR. 

50%  SURPLUS  AIR. 

100%  SURPLUS  AIR. 

Wt. 

Wt.  per 
Cab.  Ft. 

Vol. 
Cnb. 
Ft. 

Wt. 

Wt.  per 
Cub.  Ft. 

Vol. 
Cab. 
Ft. 

Wt. 

Wt.  per 
Cnb.  Ft. 

Vol. 
Cub. 
Ft. 

Wt. 

Wt.  per 
Cub.  Ft. 

Vol. 
Cub. 
Ft. 

A... 
N.R. 

1502 
1619 

0.0435 

0.0428 

34540 
37814 

1694 
1826 

0.0434 

0.0427 

39190 

42808 

2014 
2172 

0.0429 

0.0418 

46940 
51154 

2653 
2865 

0.0425 
0.0416 

G2440 
67854 

Y... 

1687 

0.0420 

40187 

1904 

0.0419 

45447 

2266 

0.0418 

54207 

2990 

0.0417 

71747 

M.O. 

1578 

0.0416 

37981 

1781 

0.0415 

42891 

2119 

0.0415 

51071 

2796 

0.0414 

67431 

C... 

1567 

0.0409 

38322 

1768 

0.0409 

43182 

2104 

0.0410 

51310 

2777 

0.0411 

67570 

If  we  take  for  example  Youghiogheny  coal,  we  see  that  with  100  per  cent 
surplus  air  the  weight  of  the  chimney  gases  has  been  reduced  to  0.0417  Ibs. 
per  cu.  ft.  We  have,  then  with  the  air  at  62°  F.,  a  draft  pressure  of  0.66 
inches  in  place  of  the  0.649  inches  of  Table  64.  That  is  a  gain  of  li  per 
cent  in  draft  by  admitting  100  per  cent  surplus  air;  but  we  have  96  per  cent 
more  in  volume  of  gases  to  push  through  the  chimney.  If  we  still  assume 
the  temperature  of  chimney  gases  at  500°  F.,  this  surplus  air  (at  0.2379 
specific  heat)  requires  150592  H.  U.  to  bring  it  from  62°  to  500°.  As  this 
Youghiogheny  coal  averages  12800  H.  U.  per  lb.,  it  would  take  all  the  heat 
from  11.76  Ibs.  of  coal  to  heat  this  surplus  air,  a  loss  of  nearly  12  per  cent  in 
the  efficiency  or  economy. 

If  on  the  other  hand  we  assume  that  the  chimney  temperature  will  be 
reduced,  and  no  fuel  is  wasted  in  heating  this  surplus  air,  this  total  possi- 
ble reduction  based  on  the  same  at  62°  F.,  with  the  specific  heat  of  air  at 
0.2379,  that  of  the  gases  of  combustion  at  0.2495,  and  that  of  the  mixture  at 
0.244,  amounts  to  207°  F.,  entailing  practically  the  same  loss  in  heat,  viz., 
151100  H.  U.  But  with  the  chimney  temperature  at  only  293°  F.  we  would 
have  only  0.023  difference  in  weight  of  inside  and  outside  columns,  or  0.44 
inch  draft,  in  place  of  0.65  inch,  a  loss  of  over  32  per  cent  in  chimney 
efficiency  or  capacity.  In  other  words  this  surplus  air  has  reduced  the 
velocity  of  the  gases  in  the  chimney  nearly  one-third,  while  giving  us  96  per 
cent  more  gases  to  move.  This  shows  forcibly  that  a  low  chimney  temper- 


—112— 


Example  of  Iron  Chimney. 
Designed  by  J.  P.  Withrovv. 


ature  may  snow  waste  of  fuel;  it  shows  economy  only  when  attained  with  a 
minimum  of  surplus  air. 

The  velocity  per  second  of  the  gases  in  the  stack  is  given  by  the  formula 
V=i/2gh  in  which  "h"  is  the  height  of  a  column  of  the  hot  chimney  gas 
whose  weight  is  equal  to  the  difference  in  weight  of  the  air  outside  and  the 
gas  inside  of  the  chimney.  As  we  can  express  this  head  in  inches  of  water 
"p,"  we  get  the  formula  V=C]/P  in  which  the  constant  "  C  "  varies  ac- 
cording to  the  composition  of  this  gas.  For  the  gaser-  at  500°  F.  from  the 
various  coals  above  considered,  the  formula  becomes  : 

V  =  87.2     i/P  for  Anthracite  Coal. 

V  -.  87.92  i/P  for  New  River  Coal. 

V  ==  88.56  i/P  for  Youghiogheny  Coal. 

V  =  89.36  i/P  for  Mt.  Olive  Coal. 

V  =  90.24  i/P  for  Collinsville  Coal. 

For  +he  entrance  velocity  of  the  air  under  the  grate,  we  have  for  62° 
F.  the  formula  V=66.1  i/P 

These  formulas  give  us  velocities  of  75  ft.  p.  second  and  over  for  the 
quite  [usual  draft  pressure  of  0.75  inch  of  water.  But  no  such  velocities 
exist  in  boiler  chimneys.  The  reason  is  that  only  a  small  part  of  that  differ- 
ence in  pressure,  which  our  draft  gauge  measures  at  the  base  of  the  stack  is 
or  can  be  utilized  for  producing  velocity.  The  greater  part  of  it  is  required 
to  overcome  the  frictions  of  the  grate  with  its  bed  of  fuel,  and  that  of  the 
boiler  flues  or  tubes.  The  ignoring  of  this  fact  has  led  to  the  oft  repeated 
error  that  there  is  practically  no  gain  in  chimney  capacity  by  an  increase 
in  the  temperature  of  the  gases,  because  their  increase  in  volume  counter- 
balances the  increment  in  velocity.  And  thus  the  maximum  capacity  is 
stated  as  reached  when  the  gases  have  about  double  the  volume  of  the 
external  air.  On  the  other  hand,  an  English  authority,  Mr.  Thos.  Box, 
shows  that  with  a  flue  100  ft.  long  from  furnace  to  base  of  chimney,  the 
maximum  power  or  capacity  is  reached  only  when  the  gases  in  the  stack 
have  about  3J  times  the  volume  of  the  external  air,  i.  e.,  when  their  temper- 
ature has  risen  to  nearly  1400°  F.  Neither  of  these  views  recognize  that 
the  character  of  the  fuel,  the  thickness  of  the  bed  upon  the  grate,  the 
methods  of  firing,  and  the  proportions  of  the  grate  are  really  the  determining 
factors  in  this  question.  And  while  it  is  true  that  temperatures  as  high  as 
1100°  F.  have  been  observed  in  practice,  they  show  very  bad  practice. 
But  even  in  much  more  moderate  limits  an  increase  of  stack  temperature 
may  materially  increase  the  power  or  capacity  of  a  given  stack. 

Careful  experiments  are  sadly  needed  for  determining  what  fractional 
parts  of  the  draft  are  expended  in  overcoming  the  various  frictions  men- 
tioned. But  from  a  large  number  of  boiler  tests  we  may  safely  figure  out 
that  modern  practice  requires  entering  velocities  of  from  9  to  25  ft.  per  sec- 
ond for  the  air,  and  escaping  velocities  of  from  7  to  30  ft.  for  the  chimney 
gases;  and  with  due  allowance  for  chimney  frictions,  we  have  then  a  total 
of  from  0.03  to  0.22  inch  of  draft  required  for  these.  The  frictions  in  fur- 
nace and  boiler  are  similarly  found  to  run  from  0.4  to  0.6  inch,  making  the 
totals  range  from  0.43  to  0.82  inch.  With  these  data  in  hand  we  can  figure 

—114— 


out  the  probable  effect  of  high  chimney  temperature  in  increasing  the  actual 
working  power  of  a  stack. 

We  will  assume  a  plant  with  a  chimney  100  ft.  high,  burning  Youghio- 
gheny  coal  at  a  pretty  brisk  rate,  taking  50  per  cent  surplus  air,  and  chim- 
ney gases  at  500°  F.  and  air  at  62°  F.  The  stack  at  this  rate  is  doing  its 
duty  well,  and  the  plant  is  fairly  economical.  A  demand  for  one-third  more 
steam  is  made  by  those  little  additions  to  the  machinery  or  increased  direct 
use  of  live  steam,  which  in  the  popular  belief  "cost  nothing  when  you  once 
have  a  good  boiler."  The  boiler  and  the  fireman  have  to  get  this  steam  some 
how.  The  only  recourse  will  be  such  changes  in  the  method  of  firing  as  will 
burn  more  coal  per  minute,  and  the  only  way  to  do  it  is  by  letting  the  gases 
escape  hotter  and  thus  get  the  increased  draft.  By  firing  oftener  and  more 
judiciously,  the  bed  of  fuel  will  not  be  much  thickened  and  the  friction  here 
will  be  increased  probably  only  one-fourth,  and  in  the  flues  hardly  that 
much. 

Suppose  the  chimney  gases  to  go  to  900°  F.  then  the  account  will  stand 
about  as  follows  : 


Ordinary 

Work 

Work. 

Increased. 

In  percent  

100^ 

133K# 

Stack  temperature  

,  500° 

900° 

Air  

62° 

62° 

Available  draft  

0.649  inch. 

0.889  inch. 

Air  entering  at  velocity  of  

10  ft.  p.  sec. 

13.3  ft.  p.  sec. 

Gases  escaping  at  velocity  of  

•  •  12  ft.  p.  sec. 

23.0  ft.  p.  sec. 

Draft  required  for  entering  velocity  

0.0230  inch. 

0.0400  inch. 

Draft  required  for  escaping  velocity  

0.0182     " 

0.0676    " 

Draft  required  to  overcome  furnace  frictions  —  • 

0.6000     " 

0.7500    " 

Total  expended  

0.6412     " 

0.8576     " 

Leaving  balance  available  

0.0078     " 

0.0314     " 

Total  pounds  gas  from  100  Ibs.  and  133  Ibs.coal 

with  50  % 

surplus  air  

2266  Ibs. 

3021  Ibs. 

Total  volume  at  500°  and  900°  

54207  cu.  ft. 

101376  cu.  ft. 

As  these  volumes  bear  to  each  other  the  same  ratio  as  the  velocities 
12:23,  the  stack  is  now  doing  its  work  just  as  well  as  before.  In  fact  the 
balance  of  draft  remaining  could  be  used  in  increasing  the  velocity  of  exit 
to  nearly  28  ft.,  i.  e.,  carrying  off  nearly  22  per  cent  more  gas  in  volume, 
equivalent  to  a  further  increase  in  capacity  for  coal  burning  of  nearly  16  per 
cent.  Or  practically  we  can  increase  the  capacity  or  power  of  the  stack  by 
nearly  fifty  per  cent  by  increasing  the  temperature  of  the  gases  from  500°  to 
900°  F.  The  cost  of  doing  this  is  of  course  very  great. 

At  500°  the  chimney  required  for  its  total  work  of  drawing  in  the  air  and 
expelling  the  gases  about  13  per  cent  of  the  fuel  burnt ;  at  900°  it  requires 
25  per  cent,  a  clear  loss  or  'waste  of  12  per  cent. 

The  same  result  can  be  attained  without  a  pound  of  additional  fuel  by 
raising  the  chimney  40  ft. 

Table  No.  66  illustrates  this  general  question,  but  in  applying  it  to  any 
existing  problem,  careful  measurements  should  first  be  made  of  existing  resist- 
ances on  the  way  from  boiler  front  to  base  of  chimney. 

—115— 


TABLE  No.  66. 


Showing  Changes  in  Capacity  of  Chimney  by  Changes  in 
Temperature  of  Gases,  With  Height  Constant ;  or  Changes  in 
Height  with  Temperature  Constant.  Air  at  62°  F.  Weight  of 
Gases,  the  Average  of  the  Five  Coals  Considered. 


Temperature  of  escaping   gases   \ 

400° 

500° 

600° 

700° 

800° 

900° 

Per  cent  of  total  coal  necessary  to  \ 

10 

13 

16 

19 

22 

25 

Draft  obtained  in  inches  of  water-  •  • 
Height  of  chimney  for  same  draft,  \ 
at  500  °   F     in  feet  / 

0.56 
86 

0.65 
100 

0.73 

112 

0.79 
121 

0.85 
131 

0.89 
137 

We  append  a  further  table  showing  the  effect  on  velocities  and  areas  of 
chimneys  from  differences  in  quantities  and  mixtures  of  gases,  and  from  the 
varying  values  as  boiler  fuels  of  the  five  coals  considered.  While  this  is 
figured  on  the  basis  of  no  surplus  air,  the  ratios  found  will  be  but  little 
affected  by  such  surplus. 

TABLE  No.  67. 


Anthra- 
cite. 

New 

River. 

Youghio- 
gheny. 

Mt. 
Olive. 

Collins- 
ville. 

100 
31440 

100 
9 

100 
100 

101 
34454 

108.5 
10.5 

85.7 
93 

102 
36367 

113.4 
10 

90 
102 

103 
34711 

107.2 
7.5 

120 
128 

104 
35052 

107.2 

7. 

128.5 
138 

Areas  should  be,  in  %  of  A  for  equal   ) 

Comparative  evaporative   efficiency  \ 
in  Ibs  water  from  and  at  212°  / 
Pounds  coal  burnt  to  be  equal  in  effect  \ 

tn  100  nrmnrl's   A..                                  ..  I 

The  above  considerations  show  the  practical  difficulties  in  the  way  of 
any  general  formulas  for  chimney  height  and  area,  and  explain  why  the 
"  doctors  disagree  "  in  regard  to  them.  If  we  had  exhaustive  and  complete 
tests  on  the  amount  of  grate  and  fuel  bed  frictions  under  the  severe  condi- 
tions of  modern  boiler  practice,  and  with  different  kinds,  qualities  and  condi- 
tions of  coal,  probably  all  accepted  formulas  would,  by  substitution  of  new 
constants,  be  brought  into  substantial  accord.  But  constants  based  on  grates 
with  25  to  33  per  cent  air  space,  and  on  a  consumption  of  8  to  15  Ibs.  coal 
per  hour  per  square  foot  of  grate  will  lead  to  erroneous  results  in  modern 
practice  with  50  per  cent  air  space  and  a  consumption  of  20  to  40  Ibs.  coal. 
Therefore  our  results  must  be  modified  by  careful  judgment  based  on  well 
known  local  conditions.  The  best  known  formulas  are  Smith's,  Kent's  and 
Gale's.  They  are  as  follows  : 


Smith. 

.  0.0825  F 

A    =        "~J7JT 


A  = 


Kent. 
0.00  F 


Gale. 

A  =  o.o- 


h  =  ( 

In  which  "  A 


0.0825  F\2 


0.06  F\2 


r    h  -  m 


A7  v    A  '  t  \G' 

=•  area,  "  h  "  =  height  of  stack  in  feet,  "  F  "  =  pounds 


-116— 


Brick  Chimney  at  the  Power  House  of  the  Union  Depot  Ry.  Co., 

ST.  LOUIS,  MO. 
Designed  by  E.  D.  Meier,  M.  E. 


coal  burnt  per  hour,  "t"  =  the  stack  temperarure,  and  "  G  "  =  grate  area. 
But  in  Kent's  formula,  "  A  "  represents  the  effective  area  only,  and  he  adds 
a  ring  2"  wide  all  around  to  allow  for  chimney  frictions.  Thus  if  the  formula 
gives  you  a  chimney  of  41"  diameter  or  of  36"  square,  you  must  make  its 
actual  size  45"  diam.  or  40"  square.  For  100  ft.  height,  Kent's  formula  gives 
a  total  area  11  per  cent  larger  than  Smith's  for  250  Ibs.  coal  per  hour  (50  H. 
P.)  ;  exactly  the  same  for  500  Ibs.  coal  (100  H.  P.)  ;  18  per  cent  smaller  for 
1000  Ibs.  (200  H.  P.)  ;  24  per  cent  smaller  for  5000  Ibs.  (1000  H.  P.)  etc. 
The  5  Ibs.  coal  per  H.  P.  is  merely  a  convenient  assumption,  and  is  based  on 
an  evaporation  of  7  Ibs.  water  per  Ib.  of  coal.  The  areas  will  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  quality  of  coal,  and  such  data  on  evaporation  as  local  practice  sup- 
plies, as  indicated  by  our  Table  No.  67. 

Kent's  formula  has  the  advantage  of  recognizing  the  practical  fact  that 
for  larger  powers  the  area  of  chimney  required  per  horse  power  becomes 
le°s. 

The  general  form  of  Gale's  formulas  is  more  promising.  But  as  his  con- 
stants are  based  on  observed  data  much  smaller  than  those  of  best  modern 
practice,  they  lead  to  rather  too  large  results.  But  his  making  the  height 
depend  only  on  the  stack  temperature  and  the  rate  of  combustion  is 
much  more  in  accord  with  the  facts  than  making  height  and  area  inter- 
dependent as  1he  other  two  formulas  do.  With  Gale's  constants  modified  so 
that  h  =  -x-VG/  the  heights  can  be  fixed  and  then  Kent's  formula  for 
areas  applied.  The  interdependence  of  height  and  area  exists  only  in  limits 
defined  by  practical  observation.  Outside  of  these  the  assumption  leads  to 
an  absurdity.  F.  i.  Kent's  formula  for  area  would  give  a  64"  chimney  9  ft. 
high  as  equivalent  to  a  35"  chimney  100  ft.  high. 

Practical  and  local  considerations  generally  fix  the  height  required.  The 
chimney  must  be  higher  than  surrounding  buildings  or  hills,  else  whenever 
the  wind  comes  from  the  direction  of  the  higher  object,  the  draft  will  be 
seriously  impaired.  Then  the  nature  of  the  coal  must  be  considered. 

Mr.  J.  J.  de  Kinder,  M.  E.,  who  has  been  engaged  on  a  large  number  of 
boiler  and  coal  tests  for  the  Pa.  R.  R.  and  other  large  consumers,  using  tele- 
scopic stacks  to  meet  this  very  question,  gives  75  ft.  as  height  for  the  most 
free-burning  bituminous  coals,  115  ft.  for  slow-burning  bituminous,  and  from 
125  to  150  ft.  for  anthracite  coals.  These  latter  being  of  three  kinds,  free- 
burning  such  as  Lykens  Valley ;  semi-free-burning  such  as  Delaware  and 
Lackawanna  ;  and  hard-burning  such  as  Lehigh  Valley ;  they  cannot  be  dis- 
tinguished from  each  other  by  appearance. 

DeKinder  gives  as  necessary  draft  for  anthracite  0.75  inch  to  0.88  inch, 
and  is  in  substantial  agreement  with  Dr.  Emery  and  Mr.  Hague  in  this.  He 
gives  20  to  25  Ibs.  per  hour  as  mimimum  rates  of  combustion,  40  per  cent  air 
space  in  grates  for  anthracite  and  50  per  cent  for  bituminous  coals. 

We  give  in  Table  No.  68  appropriate  heights  and  areas  of  chimneys  for 
powers  from  75  to  3100  horse-power  ;  based  on  an  assumed  evaporation  of  7 
Ibs.  water  per  Ib.  coal,  equivalent  to  5  Ibs.  coal  per  H.  P.  per  hour. 

For  better  or  poorer  coals  any  figures  from  this  table  can  be  readily 
modified  by  referring  to  the  tables  in  the  earlier  pages  of  this  article. 

If  bituminous  slack  is  to  be  used,  the  chimney  should  not  be  less  than 

—118— 


100  feet  high,  and  not  less  than  125  feet  high  for  anthracite  pea,  or  150  feet 
for  anthracite  buckwheat. 

TABLE    No.    es. 


1 

Area 
Square 

Feet. 

Diameter, 
Inches. 

HEIGHTS  IN  FEET. 

75 

80 

85 

90 

95 

100 

110 

120 

130 

140 

150 

175 

200 

COMMERCIAL  HORSE  FOWi-K. 

3.14 
3.69 
4.28 
4.91 
5.59 
6.31 
7.07 
8.73 
10.56 
12.57 
15.90 
19.63 
23.76 
28.27 
38.48 
50.27 
63.62 
78.54 

24 
26 
28 
30 
32 
34 
36 
40 
44 
48 
54 
60 
66 
72 
84 
96 
108 
120 

75 
90 

78 
92 
106 
122 

81 
95 
110 
127 
144 
162 

98 
114 
130 
149 
168 
188 

117 
133 
152 
171 
192 
237 
287 

120 
137 
156 
176 
198 
244 
296 
352 
445 

164 
185 
208 
257 
310 
370 
468 
577 
697 

215 
267 
322 
384 
484 
600 
725 
862 
1173 

279 
337 
400 
507 
627 
758 
902 
1229 
1584 
2058 

413 

526 
650 
784 
932 
1270 
1660 
2102 
2596 

672 
815 
969 
1319 
1725 
2181 
2693 

1044 
1422 
1859 
2352 
2904 

1983 
2511 
3100 

Whenever  it  becomes  necessary  to  have  long  flues  leading  to  a  chimney, 
the  power  of  the  latter  becomes  more  or  less  impaired.  We  adapt  the  fol- 
lowing table  from  Mr.  Thos.  Box  ;  the  total  length  of  flue  from  grate  to 
base  of  chimney  must  be  considered. 

TABLE  No.  69. 
Reduction  of  Chimney  Draft  by  Long  Flues. 

Total  length  of  flues  in  feet.. 
Chimney  draft  in  percent  — 


50 
100 


100 
93 


200 
79 


400 
66 


GOO 
58 


800 
52 


1000 
48 


2000 
35 


A  further  loss  in  draft  results  from  any  downward  course  of  the  gases  in 
the  flue.  It  may  be  roughly  accounted  for  by  using  double  the  length  of 
such  down  turn  in  making  up  the  total  flue  lengths  for  the  above  table. 

Where  several  boilers  lead  into  one  chimney,  a  further  factor  comes  in 
to  reduce  the  required  area.  The  heaviest  work  for  the  chimney  is  just 
after  firing,  since  the  friction  through  the  fresh  coal  is  greater  and  the  tem- 
perature less  than  some  minutes  later.  But  it  would  be  very  bad  practice  to 
fire  all  boilers  or  all  doors  simultaneously.  Hence  the  second  and  succeeding 
boilers  do  not  require  as  much  area  as  the  first.  It  will  be  safe  to  figure  75 
per  cent  for  the  second  and  50  per  cent  each  for  the  third,  fourth,  etc.  But 
it  is  advisable  to  increase  the  height  slightly  for  each  boiler  added. 

E.  D.  M. 


—119— 


CONCENTRATION  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF  POWER. 

From  the  time  that  man  first  began  to  call  the  forces  of  nature 
to  aid  him  in  his  handicraft,  there  has  been  a  gradual  increase  in 
the  size  of  power  plants.  At  each  stage  of  progress  it  became 
plainer  that  power,  repairs  and  labor  could  be  saved  by  larger  wind 
or  water  wheels,  turbines,  and  finally  steam  engines.  The  best 
engineer  or  millwright  costs  less  than  two  of  somewhat  less  ability, 
duplicate  parts  for  one  machine  serve  for  prompt  repairs  as  well 
for  one  out  of  twenty  as  for  one  out  of  three,  a  500-horse  power 
engine  costs  less  than  two  of  250-horse  power,  etc.,  etc. 

But  there  were  other  causes  which  imposed  limits  which  it  was 
disastrous  to  pass.  The  laborers  grew  in  number  in  some  ratio  with 
the  increase  in  power;  they  must  live  near  the  works.  Often  the 
best  place  for  the  power  plant  was  the  worst  place  for  them.  The 
conversion  from  heat  energy  to  mechanical  force  frequently  de- 
mands a  site  at  low  water  level  difficult  of  access  or  unhealthy  for 
the  laborers.  Shafting  and  even  wire  cables  have  short  distance 
limits  for  the  economical  transmission  of  power. 

But  with  the  development  of  electrical  power,  which  com- 
menced in  the  last  decade,  and  is  advancing  now  in  almost  geo- 
metrical ratio,  very  large  steam  plants  have  multiplied.  It  becomes 
possible  to  develop  an  immense  amount  of  power  in  one  place, 
since  with  but  one  more  conversion — from  mechanical  into  elec- 
trical energy — we  can  send  it,  divided  into  just  such  quantities  as 

—121— 


fit  each  time  and  place,  to  points  many  miles  apart,  with  losses 
exactly  controllable.  Locations  can  therefore  be  chosen  where 
fuel  and  water  are  cheapest,  where  the  refuse  is  easiest  disposed 
of,  etc.,  and  where  every  item  of  economy,  multiplied  by  the  enor- 
mous quantities  involved,  becomes  a  question  of  grave  concern 
and  careful  calculation.  In  these  large  and  essentially  modern 
power  plants  will  be  found,  as  peer  of  the  best  type  of  the  com- 
pound condensing  or  triple  expansion  engine,  the  Modern  Water 
Tube  Boiler.  When  in  a  plant  like  these,  the  old  fire  tube  type 
of  boiler  is  found,  it  is  but  an  exception  which  proves  the  rule.  As 
an  apt  illustration  of  this  development  we  may  compare  the  Cen- 
tennial Exposition  at  Philadelphia  in  1876  where  a  single  1000- 
horse  power  engine  sufficed  to  drive  all  the  machinery,  and  where 
fire  tube  boilers  were  the  rule  and  water  tube  the  exception,  with 
the  great  Columbian  Worlds  Fair  of  1893  at  Chicago,  where  an 
installation  of  75,  ooo-horse  power  boilers  becomes  necessary,  from 
which  condensing  engines  of  the  compound  and  triple  expansion 
type  will  develop  about  25,000-horse  power,  two-thirds  of  which 
will  be  converted  into  electrical  energy.*  All  these  boilers  are  of 
the  Modern  Water  Tube  type,  space,  safety,  economy  and  (Esthetic 
considerations  having  barred  the  others. 

The  detailed  and  painstaking  investigation  into  all  the  points 
involved  in  steam  making,  which  in  such  large  plants  precedes 
and  influences  the  design,  and  the  choice  and  size  of  the  parts,  is 
of  course  not  possible  in  small  plants,  whose  owners  must  neces- 
sarily follow  on  the  lines  marked  out  by  these  large  and  successful 
installations.  But  they  will  the  more  readily  profit  by  such  expe- 
rience when  prepared  to  analyze  the  different  elements  which 
together  compose  a  modern  boiler  plant.  As  a  guide  to  such 
analysis  we  offer  in  the  following  pages  a  few  elementary  thoughts 
on  the  salient  points  involved. 

*By  general  consent  a  horse  power  in  a  boiler  is  considered  as  the  evaporation  into 
steam,  at  seventy  pounds  gage  pressure,  of  thirty  porands  of  water  per  hour,  as  being  about 
the  quantity  a  good  slide  valve  engine  requires.  A  good  single  cylinder  Corliss  engine  uses 
only  twenty-five  pounds,  a  compound  condensing  eighteen  to  twenty  pounds,  and  a  triple 
expansion  thirteen  to  sixteen  pounds.  This  explains  the  apparent  discrepancy  between 
boiler  and  engine  power. 

122 


A  MODERN  BOILER  PLANT. 


A  good  boiler  plant  is  something  essentially  modern.  Since  Watt  yoked 
the  Power,  and  Stephenson  harnessed  the  Speed  of  Steam  to  the  triumphal  car 
of  modern  progress,  invention  has  been  busy,  throughout  the  civilized 
world,  with  improvements  in  all  the  elements  of  a  complete  steam  plant. 

But  owing  partly  to  the  fact  that  the  engine  seemed  to  offer  more 
chances  for  experiment,  and  better  opportunity  for  observation,  and  partly 
to  the  knowledge  that  the  losses  in  the  engine  were  vastly  greater  than  in 
even  a  carelessly  designed  boiler  plant,  the  engine  has  received  by  far 
greater  attention.  Even  now  it  is  not  an  unusual  thing  to  find  a  steam 
plant  in  which  every  refinement  of  modern  engineering  has  been  carefully 
brought  to  bear  in  the  design  and  construction  of  engine  and  shafting,  while 
the  boiler  plant  has  been  settled  by  prescribing  the  number  of  square  feet 
of  heating  surface,  and  adding  a  few  commonplace  specifications  about  the 
steel,  which  can  be  as  well  filled  by  a  high  sulphur  steel  as  by  good  flange 
stock.  Many  an  intelligent  manufacturer  will  point  with  pride  to  his  pol- 
ished Corliss  engine,  will  show  you  model  indicator  cards  from  it,  while 
neither  he  nor  his  engineer  can  tell  you  within  25  per  cent  what  his  boilers 
are  doing. 

It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  the  boilers  stowed  away  in  some  hole,  so 
close,  dark  and  ill-ventilated  that  no  self-respecting  skilled  laborer  will  con- 
tinue to  work  in  it,  and  a  good  fireman  is  emphatically  a  skilled  workman, 
having  charge  of  an  important  chemical  process  whose  proper  handling,  in 
many  lines  of  manufacture,  determines  whether  the  books  will  show  loss  or 
profit  at  the  end  of  the  year. 

Naturally  enough,  ill-designed,  badly  proportioned  breechings  or  flues 
are  often  found  in  such  places,  connecting  into  chimneys  neither  wide 
enough  nor  high  enough  for  the  work  expected  of  them.  But  within  the 
last  decade  more  attention  has  been  given  to  the  boiler  plant.  Much  educa- 
tional work  has  been  done  by  boiler  companies,  notably  by  one  which 
annually  publishes  in  its  catalogue  much  useful  information  and  many  con- 
venient tables  of  data  connected  with  steam  generation,  which  are  not  else- 
where readily  available  to  the  average  steam  user  or  his  engineer.  Much 
credit  is  due  to  the  large  electrical  companies  who  have  boldly  departed 
from  antique  superstitions,  and  have  put  as  much  thought  into  their  boiler 
plants  as  into  the  other  elements  of  their  large  installations. 

A  boiler  plant  consists  in  the  main  of  three  essential  parts,  each  one  of 
which  has  its  own  important  office  in  the  success  of  the  whole. 

First,  there  is  the  Chimney  or  Stack  with  its  Flue  or  Breeching,  to  carry 
off  the  waste  gases  and  to  create  the  Draft,  without  which  combustion  in  a 
practical  and  economic  sense  is  impossible. 

Second,  the  Furnace  or  Setting,  whose  arrangement  and  dimensions  de- 
termine the  important  elements  of  quantity  and  economy  of  combustion. 

Third,  the  Boiler,  whose  proportions  and  design  must  be  such  as  enable 
it  to  absorb  the  maximum  amount  of  the  heat  produced  by  the  furnace, 
thus  determining  finally  the  capacity  and  economy  of  the  whole  plant. 
These  separate  and  distinct  offices  of  .the  three  component  parts  of  a  boiler 
plant  are  often  confounded,  not  only  by  those  to  whom  a  boiler-room  is  sim- 

—124— 


ply  a  vague  counterpart  of  the  Black  Hole  of  Calcutta,  but  even  by  those 
who  claim  to  "know  all  about  boiJers."  How  often  is  the  boiler  manufac- 
turer met  by  the  question:  "Will  your  boiler  burn  slack?"  or  "tanbark"  or 
some  other  fuel  desirable  because  cheap.  Aside  from  the  fact  that  the 
boiler  has  usually  very  little  to  do  with  it,  the  question  can  only  be  answered 
by  exercising  the  Yankee  privilege  of  asking  a  few  more.  F.  i.  "How 
much  draft  have  you?"  or  "What  are  the  dimensions  of  your  chimney,?" 
the  answer  will  generally  be  "a  splendid  draft,"  or  "we  have  a  fine  big 
chimney  built  only  a  few  years  ago."  But  this  gives  the  boiler  man  but  a 
very  vague  idea.  He  wants  facts  and  he  does  not  get  them.  The  splendid 
draft  may  prove  to  be,  according  to  the  personal  equation  of  his  informant, 
anything  from  four-tenths  of  an  inch  to  an  inch  of  pressure,  the  chimney 
may  be  anything  from  half  to  full  capacity  for  the  work  in  hand,  and  yet 
upon  an  accurate  knowledge  of  these  data  the  correct  answer  to  the  first 
question  depends. 

THE    CHIMNEY. 

The  Chimney  determines  how  many  pounds  of  fuel  can  be  burnt  per 
hour,  the  quantity  varying  with  the  kind  of  fuel  in  very  narrow  limits,  and 
also  to  some  extent  depending  on  atmospheric  conditions.  Its  office  is  to 
remove  the  waste  gases  whose  quantity  varies  but  little  whether  smoke 
accompanies  combustion  or  not,  and  to  supply  enough  air  to  oxydize  all 
the  fuel.  The  Draft  pressure  is  simply  the  difference  in  weight  between  a 
column  of  hot  and  therefore  light  gas  in  the  chimney,  and  a  column  of  air 
outside,  of  the  same  height  and  area.  The  greater  the  draft  pressure,  the 
greater  the  speed  of  the  spent  gas  leaving  and  the  fresh  air  entering  the 
furnace,  and  hence  the  greater  the  quantity  of  fuel  which  the  same  chimney 
area  will  enable  us  to  burn. 

This  pressure,  as  explained,  depends  on  the  height  and  temperature  of 
the  column  of  waste  gas;  it  may  be  increased  at  will  either  by  making  the 
chimney  higher  or  allowing  the  spent  gas  to  escape  at  a  higher  tempera- 
ture. The  latter  method  is  very  wasteful  and  should  never  be  resorted  to 
except  where  the  former  cannot,  for  some  local  reasons,  be  adopted.  Of 
course,  with  larger  chimney  area  less  speed  will  suffice  for  the  same  quan- 
tities of  gas  and  air,  and  this  fact  is  often  urged  to  bolster  up  the  antique 
superstition  that  a  low  chimney  with  ample  area  will  do  the  same  work  as  a 
tall  one  of  less  diameter.  If  this  were  true,  removing  the  roof  of  the  boiler 
house  ought  to  prove  a  good  substitute  for  an  expensive  chimney,  and  a 
gas  globe  might  conveniently  replace  the  broken  chimney  of  a  student  lamp. 

It  is  just  here  that  the  nature  of  the  fuel  affects  the  matter.  To  cause 
combustion  the  air  must  be  brought  into  intimate  contact  with  all  the  particles 
of  the  fuel.  With  gas  or  oil  this  may  be  done  with  small  initial  draft. 
The  f fictional  resistance  to  the  passage  of  the  air  through  a  bed  of  solid  fuel 
of  any  kind  increases  with  the  decrease  in  the  size  of  the  pieces,  lumps  or 
grain  of  the  fuel.  Hence  a  sharper  draft  is  required  for  sawdust  or  tanbark 
than  for  cordwood,  for  slack  or  pea  coal  than  for  nut  or  egg  coal.  But  the 
smaller  the  grain  of  the  fuel  the  more  surface  is  presented  for  the  oxydizing 
action  of  the  air,  hence  the  more  uniform  the  combustion.  Therefore  the 
careful  fireman  breaks  his  lump  coal  just  before  firing. 

Again  most  coals  have  two  rates  of  combustion  which  give  best  economic 
results.  One  usually  a  very  low  one  and  hence  hardly  available  in  the  very 
limited  space  generally  fixed  by  modern  conditions.  The  other  is  a  much 

—  325— 


higher  one,  the  intermediate  rates  being  frequently  very  wasteful.  This 
higher  rate  makes  more  power  possible  in  the  minimum  of  floor  area  and  hence 
meets  modern  demands.  It  developes  higher  temperatures,  and,  as  great 
differences  in  heat  favor  its  transmission,  it  makes  more  work  possible  in 
the  boiler. 

Finally  a  strong  draft  in  the  chimney  is  less  liable  to  interrtiption  by  gusts 
of  twind  than  a  sluggish  one.  All  these  considerations  point  to  the  tall 
chimney  as  the  source  and  fountain  of  all  the  energies  of  a  modern  steam 
plant. 

The  smoke  stacks  of  the  Pacific  Mills,  Lawrence;  the  Boston  Edison 
Co.;  the  Narragansett  Electric  Light  Co.,  Providence;  Broadway  Cable  R. 
R.  New  York;  Clark  Thread  Mills,  Newark;  Union  Depot  R.  R.,  St.  Louis; 
Chicago  Edison  Co.,  and  Anheuser-Busch  Brewery,  St.  Louis,  are  good  ex- 
amples of  modern  practice  in  the  matter  of  tall  chimneys. 

The  forty  to  sixty  feet  smoke  stacks  which  were  "plenty  high  enough" 
belong  to  the  past,  with  the  old  stone  mills,  the  ram  shackle  engines  with  the 
gothic  ornaments,  low  steam  and  timber  bed  frames. 

The  Flue  or  Breeching  connecting  the  furnace  or  setting  to  the  chimney 
properly  forms  part  of  it.  It  should  be  of  equal  or  slightly  larger  area  and 
where  changes  in  shape  or  direction  cannot  be  avoided  they  must  be  made 
easy  and  gradual,  carefully  preserving  the  area  at  all  points.  Abrupt  turns 
or  contractions  of  area  are  known  to  interfere  with  the  flow  of  liquids;  fre- 
quent and  facile  observation  shows  this  to  every  one,  and  tables  are  pub- 
lished showing  the  observed  loss  in  effect  by  those  of  most  common  occur- 
rence. In  the  case  of  gases  the  effect  is  even  more  damaging,  since  the 
initial  force  is  generally  (in  a  chimney  always")  limited,  while  opportunities 
for  observing  this  action  are  not  frequent  and  have  to  be  specially  created. 
Therefore  so  many  sharp  turns  and  sudden  changes  in  area  are  met  with 
in  steam  pipes  and  smoke  flues,  which,  a  little  thought  would  prove,  should 
be  avoided.  Where  one  chimney  serves  several  boilers,  the  branch  of  the 
breeching  or  flue  for  each  must  be  somewhat  larger  than  its  proportionate 
part  of  the  area  of  the  main  flue. 

Forced  draft  is  sometimes  employed  with  good  success.  It  should  be 
an  adjunct  merely,  but  cannot  be  made  to  replace  a  tall  chimney.  Com- 
bustion will  not  be  as  perfect  under  pressure  as  under  a  slight  vacuum.  A 
leakage  of  air  inward  through  the  furnace  walls  helps  to  supply  hot  air  for 
combustion,  and  to  some  extent  reduces  and  counteracts  losses  by  radia- 
tion. But  excessive  forced  blast  which  more  than  counterbalances  the 
draft  of  the  chimney  will  increase  radiation  and  by  leakage  through  the 
walls,  doors,  etc.,  outwards  cause  much  loss.  Worst  of  all  it  interferes 
with  the  fireman  by  making  his  work  hard  and  unsatisfactory. 

THE    FURNACE. 

The  chimney  having  fixed  the  quantity  of  fuel  we  can  burn,  we  must 
arrange  our  furnace  so  that  it  will  do  the  best  work  within  this  limit.  We 
must  remember  that  the  draft  must  be  husbanded,  its  whole  force  to  be  called 
on  only  for  our  maximum  effort.  The  kind  of  fuel  and  the  nature  of  the 
service  will  determine  the  proportions  of  our  furnace.  The  furnace  which 
will  give  excellent  results  on  coal  will  be  found  inadequate  for  wood,  if  it 
be  proportioned  for  the  steady  and  regular  work  of  a  flour  mill,  it  must  be 
modified  to  meet  the  sudden  and  varying  demands  of  an  electric  railway. 
The  grate  must,  in  area,  in  width  and  shape  of  air  spaces,  in  length  and 

—126— 


design  of  bars  be  adjusted  to  the  kind  of  work  the  plant  is  to  do,  and  the 
peculiarities  of  the  fuel.  Thus  a.baking  and  clinkering  coal  requires  few 
and  wide  air  spaces,  a  dry  and  friable  one  must  have  many  and  narrow 
ones.  The  total  air  space  of  the  grate  must  be  made  as  large  as  possible 
since  it  is  the  active  element;  the  metal  must  be  reduced  in  width  as  much 
as  is  compatible  with  strength.  The  surface  of  the  grate  must  be  as  smooth 
and  even  as  possible  so  as  to  offer  no  impediment  to  the  use  of  the  clinker 
bar  and  other  fire  tools.  The  longer  time  required  for  the  perfect  combus- 
tion of  a  fuel  the  larger  must  furnace,  combustion  chamber  and  flue  be 
arranged.  For  sufficient  air,  high  temperature,  and  time  and  space  are 
equally  important  conditions  of  thorough  combustion,  and  this  must  be 
completed  before  the  gases  are  brought  in  contact  with  the  heating  (or 
here  cooling)  surfaces  of  the  boiler.  These  rules  apply  to  the  various  patent 
grates,  stokers  and  furnaces  as  well  as  to  the  standard  devices  of  established 
practice.  And  the  best  invention  must  in  its  application  be  supplemented 
by  experience,  calculation  and  design.  The  walls  of  a  good  furnace  should 
have  as  few  openings,  doors,  etc.,  as  possible,  since  every  break  in  the  bond 
of  the  brickwork  increases  the  tendency  to  cracks,  which  can  never  be  en- 
tirely avoided,  but  which  cause  leaks  so  detrimental  to  complete  economy. 
Double  walls  with  air  spaces  between  them  should  always  be  employed 
where  practicable,  so  that  this  unavoidable  indraft  through  the  cracks  may 
be  heated  and  utilized  for  secondary  combustion. 

The  lining  of  the  furnace  proper  and  the  bridge  wall  should  be  made  of 
a  quality  of  fire  brick  which  combines  great  refractory  power  with  hardness 
and  toughness  to  resist  the  abrasion  due  to  the  fire  tools  and  the  clinkers. 
The  combustion  chamber  and  flues  may  be  lined  with  a  cheaper  grade  since 
the  heat  is  less  and  no  abrasion  possible.  The  cheap  plan  of  using  no  fire 
brick  abaft  the  bridge  wall  is  wasteful  in  the  end  and  therefore  bad  prac- 
tice. As  no  bond  of  either  fireclay  or  mortar  is  absolutely  reliable  under  fur- 
nace temperature,  long  and  stout  anchor  rods  should  be  used  to  tie  the 
walls  securely  together.  It  is  of  course  necessary  to  make  the  joints  be- 
tween the  furnace  and  the  boiler  as  nearly  air-tight  as  possible.  This  is  best 
done  by  leaving  joints  wide  enough  to  clear  all  projecting  parts  of  the  boiler, 
such  as  rivet  heads,  etc.,  and  then  filling  them  with  some  spongy  material, 
f.  i.,  tow  or  waste  thoroughly  saturated  with  fireclay.  This  is  pliable 
enough  to  follow  the  movements  caused  by  alternate  expansion  and  contrac- 
tion without  racking  the  brickwork  or  impairing  the  joints.  By  this  arrange- 
ment the  boiler  can  be  made  entirely  independent  of  the  stability  of  the  walls. 
For  all  clinkering  coals  a  cemented  ashpit  kept  full  of  water  is  advisable. 

Having  now  designed  a  furnace,  capable  of  burning  our  fuel  to  best 
advantage,  little  and  slowly  when  the  demand  for  power  is  slight,  much  and 
fiercely  when  the  full  load  is  put  on,  i.  e.,  having  devised  the  best  means 
for  waking  the  sleeping  force  in  the  fuel  to  the  active  energy  of  living  Heat, 
we  want  means  to  translate  this  into  Mechanical  Power. 

THE     BOILER. 

The  Steam  Boiler  furnishes  the  means.  If  we  except  certain  dangerous 
vapors,  steam,  which  is  the  gaseous  form  of  water,  is  the  substance  whose 
expansive  force  grows  most  rapidly  with  each  increment  of  heat.  It  has 
therefore  become  to  civilized  man  the  almost  universal  means  of  drawing 
active  working  force  from  the  latent  Sun-Energy  stored  up  for  him  for  ages 

—127— 


past  by  provident  Nature.      In  the  furnace  the  energy  of  heat  has  been  called 

to  life;  the  boiler  is  now  to  absorb  this  heat  and  to  transmit  it    to   the   watet 

f 

within.  This  will  first  rise  in  temperature  with  less  than  five  per  cent  ex- 
pansion, until  a  point  is  reached  when  each  additional  unit  of  heat  absorbed 
changes  a  particle  of  water  into  the  vapor  we  call  steam.  This  change 
is  accompanied  by  an  immense  increase  in  volume,  and  as  the  boiler  im- 
prisons the  steam  and  exactly  limits  the  space  it  may  occupy,  each  new 
particle  thus  changed  crowds  on  those  gone  before  and  the  imperative  ten- 
dency to  occupy  more  space  begets  the  expansive  force  or  pressure  oi 
steam  which  our  gage  registers.  To  hold  this  pressure  with  safety,  is  the 
second  office  of  the  boiler.  If  there  be  just  room  in  the  boiler  above  the 
water  line,  to  contain  one  pound  of  water  converted  into  steam  at  atmos- 
pheric pressure,  the  second  pound  thus  converted  crowds  the  first  into  hat) 
this  space,  appropriates  the  other  half  itself  and  thereby  adds  fully  fifteen 
pounds  per  square  inch  to  the  originally  existing  pressure,  and  so  on  with 
each  succeeding  pound  of  water  which  the  heat  absorbed  changes  into 
steam.  At  the  same  time  each  pound  of  water  previously  converted  into 
steam  must  absorb  a  certain  quantity  of  heat  to  enable  it  to  retain  its  gas- 
eous form  under  this  increased  pressure,  or  some  portion  of  it  will 
fall  back  as  watery  spray.  Every  one  who  has  seen  a  teakettle  boil  knows 
that  the  steam  rises  in  transparent  bubbles,  which  burst  as  they  reach  the 
surface,  scattering  spray  to  all  sides  but  mainly  upwards.  The  spray,  be- 
ing water,  has  no  expansive  force,  and  when  allowed  to  leave  the  boiler 
with  the  steam  not  only  represents  so  much  inert  matter  carried  along  but 
presents  innumerable  surfaces  to  invite  and  hasten  condensation.  The 
third  office  of  a  good  boiler  is  therefore  the  separation  of  this  entrained 
water  from  the  steam.  This  is  an  important  office  and  worthy  of  the  ser- 
ious thought  of  the  designer;  yet  it  is  often  neglected  in  superstitious 
reliance  on  the  fetich  of  an  excessive  amount  of  heating  surface. 

The  water  with  which  boilers  are  fed  is  rarely  even  approximately  pure. 
Salts  of  lime  and  magnesia  are  the  most  frequent  impurities  chemically  com- 
bined, while  much  extraneous  matter  both  vegetable  and  mineral  is  carried 
along  mechanically.  The  latter  as  well  as  the  carbonates  are  readily  precip- 
itated  at  the  boiling  point  at  atmospheric  pressure.  But  the  sulphates  oj 
lime  and  magnesia  require  a  temperature  of  nearly  300°  Fahrenheit  to  be- 
come insoluble  and  drop  to  the  bottom;  this  is  about  the  boiling  point  for 
water  under  fifty-two  pounds  gage  pressure.  While  therefore  the  common 
exhaust  feed  water  heater  and  the  old  time  mud  drum  will,  if  properly  pro- 
portioned to  the  work  remove  the  mud  and  the  carbonates,  they  will  have 
no  effect  whatever  on  the  sulphates.  For  it  is  matter  of  common  exper- 
ience that  you  can  almost  hold  your  hand  on  the  mud  drum  of  a  battery  of 
boilers  while  they  are  under  100  pounds  of  steam,  especially  where  the  old 
method  of  feeding  through  the  mud  drum  is  adhered  to,  and  an  exhaust 
feed  heater  cannot  yield  more  than  212°  Fahrenheit  temperature.  The  sul- 
phates make  the  hardest  scale  when  allowed  to  bake  on  the  heating  surfaces. 
Their  removal  is  therefore  even  more  necessary  than  that  of  the  mud  or  the 
carbonates.  If  a  mud  drum  or  other  vessel  is  made  part  of  the  boiler  for 
this  purpose  it  must  be  placed  where  it  will  necessarily  partake  of  or  approx- 
imate the  steam  temperature..  The  best  modern  practice  removes  all  these  im- 
purities by  live  steam  purifiers,  by  chemical  precipitation,  or  by  filtration 

—129— 


after  coagulation,  before  feeding  the  water  to  the  boilers.  But  this  best 
practice  is  not  as  yet  the  general  rule,  and  these  means  may  sometimes 
prove  inadequate.  Therefore  a  good  boiler  should  be  able  to  dispense  with 
them,  or,  when  supplied,  to  supplement  their  work. 

The  fourth  office  of  the  boiler  is  then  to  remove  all  impurities  from  the 
water  which  may  have  escaped  other  cleaning  agencies,  and  to  deposit  them 
at  points  where  they  do  the  least  harm  and  can  be  readily  removed.  No 
means  are  so  efficient  for  this  purpose  as  positive  and  unchecked  circulation 
through  all  parts  of  the  boiler,  to  keep  the  heating  surfaces  swept  clean; 
and  the  vessel  to  catch  the  impurities  must  be  open  to  the  main  current. 
If  it  can  be  arranged  so  as  to  precipitate  most  of  the  foreign  matter  out  of 
the  water  before  it  enters  into  the  main  circulation  the  result  will  be  still  better. 

The  first  office  of  the  boiler,  the  absorption  of  the  furnace  heat  and  its 
transmission  to  the  water  requires  thin  and  homegeneous  metal  for  the  heat- 
ng  surfaces  and  a  strong  and  positive  circulation  of  the  water.  It  is  well 
«nown  that  a  tube  or  flue  has  much  greater  strength  against  internal  than 
against  external  pressure.  It  is  much  easier  to  produce  and  maintain  cir- 
culation through  a  tube  than  round  about  it.  Finally  it  is  much  easier  to 
clean  the  inside  of  tubes  thoroughly,than  the  outside  when  they  are  grouped 
close  together  in  a  boiler.  An  iron  tube  of  standard  gage  will  stand 
2,500  pounds  to  the  square  inch  of  internal  pressure  before  rupture,  and  the 
rupture  in  the  vast  majority  of  cases  is  small  and  local.  The  same  tube 
would  collapse  under  external  pressure  much  earlier,  and  once  begun  the 
collapse  would  be  practically  total. 

Mr.  Thomas  Craddock  of  England,  found  by  experiment  that  a  velocity 
of  water  two  miles  per  hour  over  tube  heating  surface  doubled  its  efficiencyin 
heat  absorption,  and  that  this  circulation  became  more  important  the  less 
the  difference  in  temperature  between  the  heat  giving  and  the  heat  receiv- 
ing body.  Therefore  in  the  ultimate  economy  of  a  boiler,  to  realize  all  the 
heat  possible  from  the  escaping  temperature  of  the  gases,  circulation  is  all 
important.  The  water  tube  then  best  fulfills  the  first,  second  and  fourth  of- 
fices above  explained,  and  must  therefore  become  a  fundamental  element  of 
the  Modern  Boiler.  It  is  evident  that  for  the  third  office,  the  separation 
of  the  entrained  water  from  the  steam,  another  element  must  be  added  to 
the  water  tubes.  With  few  exceptions  water  tube  boilers  are  supplied  with 
a  large  drum  or  several  drums  or  shells  for  this  purpose.  Observation  of 
the  boiling  of  water  in  an  open  vessel  shows  that  the  spray  will,  as  the 
steam  bubbles  burst,  fly  upwards  a  number  of  inches.  There  is  reason  to 
believe  that  in  a  closed  vessel  under  pressure  it  will  not  fly  quite  so  far, 
certainly  not  further.  Steam  at  100  pounds  gage  pressure  is  about  seven 
times  as  heavy  as  at  atmospheric  pressure,  and  hence  occupies  only  one- 
seventh  of  the  space.  The  same  weight  of  water  evaporated  per  second  un- 
der the  higher  pressure,  will  rise  to  the  surface  in  much  smaller  bubbles,  or 
in  a  smaller  number,  or  most  probably  both.  The  speed  with  which  the 
steam  rises  through  the  water  depends  on  the  difference  between  the  weight 
of  the  steam  and  that  of  the  water.  At  atmospheric  pressure  the  water 
weighs  1,570  times  as  much,  at  100  pounds  gage  pressure  213  times  as 
much  as  the  steam.  For  these  two  reasons  then  the  speed  and  energy  with 
which  the  high  pressure  steam  rises  will  be  much  less  than  that  observed  at 
atmospheric  pressure.  Under  normal  conditions  therefore  there  is  less  dan- 
ger of  priming  or  wet  steam  at  high  pressures  than  at  lower  ones.  But  if  by 

—130— 


accident  or  design  a  large  valve  be  suddenly  opened  much  entrainment  fol- 
lows. This  is  because  the  sudden^lowering  of  the  pressure  in  the  boiler 
temporarily  increases  the  rate  of  evaporation  enormously.  This  accounts 
for  the  geyser  like  action  of  certain  boilers,  mainly  of  a  vertical  type,  which 
just  previously  have  been  working  "like  a  charm,"  as  soon  as  a  sudden  de- 
mand causes  the  engine  valve  to  reach  out  for  full  stroke  steam.  From 
the  above  explanations  it  is  evident  that  a  reasonable  height  of  steam  space 
and  a  large  surface  at  the  water  line  will  prevent  priming  under  ordinary 
conditions,  and  some  form  of  dry  pipe  placed  well  above  the  water  line  will 
take  care  of  moderate  fluctuations.  If  we  can  further  so  direct  the  circula- 
tion that  the  film  of  each  bursting  bubble  is  thrown  in  a  direction  contrary 
to  the  steam  delivery,  we  will  have  a  living  active  force  to  counteract  any 
rush  of  spray  towards  the  steam  nozzle.  As  these  arrangements  can  most 
readily  be  made  in  a  water  tube  boiler,  this  then  best  fulfills  the  third  office 
of  a  good  modern  boiler,  the  separation  of  the  entrained  -water  from  the 
steam. 

Compare  for  a  moment  the  favorite  type  of  fire  tube  boiler,  the  horizon- 
tal multitubular.  Following  the  demands  for  a  large  heating  surface,  the 
tubes  are  crowded  in  close  together  and  above  the  center  of  the  shell,  leav- 
ing only  about  one-fifth  of  its  area  as  steam  space,  whose  height  is  about  one- 
fourth  of  the  diameter.  A  recent  report(A.  B.  M.  A.  1892)  shows  that  this  ten- 
dency has  gone  so  far  that  30  per  cent  more  tubes  are  put  into  boilers  than 
the  best  rules  for  tube-spacing  (A.  B.  M.  A.  1889)  warrant.  This  means 
that  the  steam  space  and  the  steam  liberating  surface  have  been  much  en- 
croached on.  Not  only  is  the  water  line  brought  up  too  near  the  steam 
nozzle,  but  the  channel  for  the  rising  steam  bubbles  is  so  curtailed  and  cut 
up  that  they  create  great  commotion  at  the  water  line,  and  increase  the  ten- 
dency to  prime.  The  upper  surface  of  the  water  is  generally  accepted  as  the 
steam  liberating  surface.  If  all  the  steam  were  made  on  the  surface  of  the 
upper  row  of  tubes  this  would  be  correct.  But  all  that  is  made  on  the  bot- 
tom and  sides  of  the  shell,  and  on  all  the  tubes  below  the  top  row  has  to 
pass  the  narrow  spaces  between  the  tubes  of  the  upper  rows.  These  are  fre- 
quently but  little  over  an  inch  wide,  and  have  to  serve  for  the  return  circu- 
lation of  the  water  as  well  as  the  upward  rush  of  steam  mingled  with  water. 
Mr.  Geo.  H.  Babcock,  M.  E.,in  a  very  instructive  lecture  on  the  circulation 
of  water  delivered  at  Cornell  in  1890,  suggests  an  ingenious  method  of  ap- 
proximately finding  the  speed  of  such  rising  currents.  In  a  60-inch  boiler 
it  would  probably  not  be  far  from  fourteen  feet  per  second  or  say  about  ten 
miles  an  hour.  Water  rushing  at  ten  miles  an  hour  through  a  narrow  slit 
will  do  a  good  deal  of  sputtering,  and  when  it  is  half  steam  it  will  be  practi- 
cally all  spray.  The  four  or  five  inch  body  of  water  over  the  top  row  of  tubes 
has  a  slight  retarding  influence  but  the  real  liberating  surface  for  the  steam 
is  nevertheless  the  aggregate  of  the  narrow  spaces  between  the  upper  tubes. 
Where  there  is  any  scale  or  mud  present  in  the  water,  its  location  and  ap- 
pearance after  a  fortnight's  run  shows  that  the  bulk  of  the  upward  circula- 
tion in  a  horizontal  tubular  boiler  is  confined  to  a  short  section  near  the 
bridge  wall,  its  speed  decreasing  towards  front  and  rear  till  it  meets  the 
downward  currents  which  are  strongest  near  the  ends  of  the  boiler.  This 
further  concentrates  the  steam  delivery  on  a  small  portion  of  the  liberating 
surface.  For  this  reason  this  whole  type  of  fire  tube  boilers  gives  wet 
steam  when  forced.  This  has  lead  to  insistence  or  more  heating  surface, 

—131— 


and  this  again  when  supplied  without  due  increase  in  the  other  important 
ratios  of  tube  spacing,  liberating  surface  and  steam  room,  serves,  as  we  have 
seen,  to  increase  the  evils  it  is  intended  to  remedy.  It  must  of  course  be  con- 
ceded that  in  the  boilers  of  the  water  tube  type  with  either  tubes  or  drums 
placed  vertically  or  nearly  so,  the  tendency  to  prime  is  even  greater  than  in 
the  horizontal  fire  tube  types.  But  in  the  types  which  have  stood  the  test  of 
years  the  tubes  and  shells  or  drums  are  horizontal  or  slightly  inclined,  fully 
half  the  shell  is  steam  space,  the  vertical  distance  from  water  line  to  steam  noz- 
zle is  half  the  diameter  or  more,  the  upward  current  of  circulation  is  deflected 
away  from  the  steam  opening,  and  the  liberating  surface  is  the  largest,  hori- 
zontal section  of  the  shell,  entirely  free  from  tubes  or  other  obstructions. 
Well  designed  boilers  of  this  class  have  been  forced  to  nearly  double  their 
rated  capacity  without  approaching  the  amount  of  entrainment  considered 
permissible  in  the  horizontal  tubular  type  at  conservative  rating. 

As  these  advantages  are  obtained  with  shells  or  drums  of  about  half  the 
diameter  of  fire  tube  boilers  of  the  same  evaporative  capacity,  greater  safety 
at  high  pressures  is  the  result.  For  the  thinner  metal  has  more  strength  per 
sq.  in.,  and  uniformity  than  thicker  plate  of  the  same  quality.  The  rivet 
seams  admit  of  more  favorable  proportions.  Thin  sheets  can  be  better  fitted 
than  thick  ones,  etc.  Thin  metal  transmits  heat  more  rapidly  than 
thick,  and  hence  surfers  less  deterioration,  and  finally  the  nest  of  tubes 
in  a  water  tube  boiler  protects  the  shell  from  the  direct  and  fiercest 
heat,  thus  ensuring  greater  durability,  and  removing  all  danger  of  any 
chemical  action  of  the  hot  carbon  or  sulphur  on  the  steel  boiler  plates. 
The  free  circulation  in  a  water  tube  boiler  tends  to  equalize  the  tempera- 
tures all  over  the  structure,  thus  preventing  those  dangerous  strains  due  to 
unequal  expansion.  The  old  saw  of  "ice  at  the  bottom,  water  in  the  mid- 
dle, and  steam  on  top"  is  but  a  slight  exaggeration  of  what  often  occurs  in 
a  fire  tube  boiler,  and  many  a  "mysterious"  explosion  may  be  due  to  such 
a  cause.  These  are  some  of  the  points  of  superiority  of  the  boiler  proper. 
In  relation  to  furnace  and  chimney  there  are  several  more. 

In  a  firetube  boiler  the  aggregate  tube  area  limits  the  capacity  of  the 
furnace,  and  checks  the  work  of  the  chimney.  The  cogent  reasons  against 
increasing  it  have  been  pointed  out  above.  In  a  water  tube  boiler  the  flue 
areas  can  be  freely  proportioned  to  furnace  and  chimney  and  can  even  be 
adjusted  to  suit  local  conditions  after  the  boiler  is  built  and  set,  without  dis- 
arranging any  important  ratios. 

It  is  well  known  that  ashes  and  soot  soon  cut  down  both  heating  surface 
and  flue  area  in  fire  tube  boilers,  and  that  flame  entering  a  tube  is  soon  ex- 
tinguished; careful  experiments  have  shown  "that  the  quantities  of  water 
evaporated  by  consecutive  equal  lengths  of  flue-tubes  decrease  in  geometrical 
progression."  (D.  K.  Clark.) 

In  water  tube  boilers  the  ashes  and  soot  find  much  less  chance  for  lodg- 
ment, all  the  heating  surfaces  are  constantly  accessible,  during  service,  for 
inspection  and  cleaning;  the  flame  is  constantly  regenerated  since  in  impinging 
against  successive  water  tubes  effete  combinations  are  broken  up  and  new 
ones  formed;  ocular  demonstration  of  these  facts  is  daily  possible. 

Finally,  it  is  possible  to  concentrate  more  power  in  a  single  water  tube 
boiler  than  in  any  of  the  fire  tube  types.  Therefore  considerations  of 
safety,  durability,  economy,  space  and  accessibility  point  to  the  Water  Tube 
Boiler  as  naturally  the  basis  of  a  modern  boiler  plant. 

—132- 


DC 

r° 

2. 
5' 

DO 

o 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  HEINE  SAFETY  BOILER. 


The  boiler  is  composed  of  the  best  lap  welded  wrought  iron  tubes,  ex- 
tending between  and  connecting  the  inside  faces  of  two  "water  legs"  which 
form  the  end  connections  between  these  tubes  and  a  combined  steam  and 
water  drum  or  "shell,  "placed  above  and  parallel  with  them.  (Boilers  over 
200-horse  power  have  two  such  shells.)  These  end  chambers  are  of  approx- 
imately rectangular  shape,  drawn  in  at  top  to  fit  the  curvature  of  the  shells. 
Each  is  composed  of  a  head  plate  and  a  tube  sheet,  flanged  all  around  and 
joined  at  bottom  and  sides  by  a  butt  strap  of  same  material,  strongly  riv- 
eted to  both.  The  water  legs  are  further  stayed  by  hollow  stay  bolts  of  hy- 
draulic tubing,  of  large  diameter,  so  placed  that  two  stays  support  each  tube 
and  hand  hole  and  are  subjected  to  only  very  slight  strain.  Being  made 
of  heavy  metal  they  form  the  strongest  parts  of  the  boiler  and  its  natural 
supports.  The  WATER  LEGS  are  joined  to  the  shell  by  flanged  and  riveted 
joints  and  the  drum  is  cut  away  at  these  two  points  to  make  connection 
with  inside  of  water  leg,  the  opening  thus  made  being  strengthened  by 
bridges  and  special  stays,  so  as  to  preserve  the  original  strength. 

THE  SHELLS  are  cylinders  with  heads  dished  to  form  parts  of  a  true  sphere. 
The  sphere  is  every  where  as  strong  as  the  circle  seam  of  the  cylinder  which 
is  well  known  to  be  twice  as  strong  as  its  side  seam.  Therefore  these 
heads  require  no  stays.  Both  the  cylinder  and  its  spherical  heads  are 
thereforeyr^  to  follow  their  natural  lines  of  expansion  when  put  under  pres- 
sure. Where  flat  heads  have  to  be  braced  to  the  sides  of  the  shell,  both 
suffer  local  distortions  where  the  feet  of  the  braces  are  riveted  to  them,  mak- 
ing the  calculations  of  their  strength  fallacious.  This  we  avoid  entirely 
by  the  dished  heads.  To  the  bottom  of  the  front  head  a  flange  is  riveted  in- 
to which  the  feed  pipe  is  screwed.  This  pipe  is  shown  in  the  cut  with  an- 
gle valve  and  check  valve  attached. 

On  top  of  shell  near  the  front  end  is  riveted  a  steam  nozzle  or  saddle,  to 
which  is  bolted  a  Tee.  This  Tee  carries  the  steam  valve  on  its  branch, 
which  is  made  to  look  either  to  front,  rear,  right  or  left;  on  its  top  the 
Safety  Valve  is  placed.  The  saddle  has  an  area  equal  to  that  of  Stop 
Valve  and  Safety  Valve  combined.  The  rear  head  carries  a  blow-off  flange 
of  about  same  size  as  the  feed  flange,  and  a  Manhead  curved  to  fit  the  head, 
the  manhole  supported  by  a  strengthening  ring  outside.  On  each  side 
of  the  shell  a  square  bar,  the  tile-bar,  rests  loosely  in  flat  hooks  riveted  to 
the  shell.  This  bar  supports  the  side  tiles  whose  other  ends  rest  on  the  side 
walls,  thus  closing  in  the  furnace  or  flue  on  top.  The  top  of  the  tile  bar  is 
two  inches  below  low  water  line.  The  bars  rise  from  front  to  rear  at  the 
rate  of  one  inch  in  twelve.  When  the  boiler  is  set,  they  must  be  exactly  level, 
the  whole  boiler  being  then  on  an  incline,  i.  e.,  with  a  fall  of  one  inch 
in  twelve  from  front  to  rear. 

It  will  be  noted  that  this  makes  the  height  of  the  steam  space  in  front 
about  two-thirds  the  diameter  of  the  shell,  while  at  the  rear  the  water  occu- 
pies two-thirds  of  the  shell,  the  whole  contents  of  the  drum  being  equally 
divided  between  steam  and  water.  The  importance  of  this  will  be  explain- 
ed hereafter. 

THE  TUBES  extend  through  the  tube  sheets  into  which  they  are  expand- 
ed with  roller  expanders;  opposite  the  end  of  each  and  in  the  head  plates 

—134— 


H 


oc 
2 
5' 
rt 


03 
o 


is  placed  a  hand  hole  of  slightly  larger  diameter  than  the  tube  and  through 
which  it  can  be  withdrawn.  These  hand  holes  are  closed  by  small  cast  iron 
hand  hole  plates,  which  by  an  ingenious  device  for  locking  can  be  removed  in 
a  few  seconds  to  inspect  or  clean  a  tube.  The  cut  opposite  shows  these 
hand  hole  plates  marked  H.  In  the  upper  corner  one  is  shown  in  detail, 
H2  being  the  top  view,  Hs  the  side  view  of  the  plate  itself,  the  shoulder 
showing  the  place  for  the  gasket.  Hi  is  the  yoke  or  crab  placed  outside  to 
support  the  bolt  and  nut. 

Inside  of  the  shell  is  located  the  mud  drum  D,  placed  well  below  the  water 
line  usually  paralled  to  and  three  inches  above  the  bottom  of  the  shell.  It  is 
thus  completely  immersed  in  the  hottest  water  in  the  boiler.  It  is  of  oval  section 
slightly  smaller  than  the  manhole,  made  of  strong  sheet  iron  with  cast 
iron  heads.  It  is  entirely  enclosed  except  about  eighteen  inches  of  its  up- 
per portion  at  the  forward  end,  which  is  cut  away  nearly  parallel  to  the 
water  line.  Its  action  will  be  explained  below.  The  feed  pipe  F  enters  it 
through  a  loose  joint  in  front;  the  blow-off  pipe  N  is  screwed  tightly  into  its 
rear  head,  and  passes  by  a  steam  tight  joint  through  the  rear  head  of  the 
shell.  Just  under  the  steam  nozzle  is  placed  a  dry  pan  or  dry  pipe  A.  A  de- 
flection plate  L  extends  from  the  front  head  of  the  shell  inclined  upwards,  to 
some  distance  beyond  the  mouth  or  throat  of  the  front  water  leg.  It  will 
be  noted  that  the  throat  of  each  water  leg  is  large  enough  to  be  the  practi- 
cal equivalent  of  the  total  tube  area,  and  that  just  where  it  joins  the  shell  it 
increases  gradually  in  width  by  double  the  radius  of  the  flange. 

ERECTION    AND    WALLING    IN. 

In  setting  the  boiler  we  place  its  front  water  leg  firmly  on  a  set  of  strong 
cast  iron  columns,  bolted  and  braced  together  by  the  door  frames,  dead- 
plate,  etc.,  and  forming  the  fire  front.  This  is  the  fixed  end.  The  rear 
water  leg  rests  on  rollers  which  are  free  to  move  on  cast  iron  plates  firmly  set 
in  the  masonry  of  the  low  and  solid  rear  wall.  Wherever  the  brickwork 
closes  in  to  the  boiler  broad  joints  are  left  which  are  filled  in  with  tow  or 
waste  saturated  with  fireclay,  or  other  refractory  but  pliable  material. 
Thus  the  boiler  and  its  walls  are  each  free  to  move  separately  during  expan- 
sion or  contraction,  without  loosening  any  joints  in  the  masonry.  On  the 
lower,  and  between  the  upper  tubes,  are  placed  light  fire  brick  tiles.  The 
lower  tier  extends  from  the  front  water  leg  to  within  a  few  feet  of  the  rear 
one,  leaving  there  an  upward  passage  across  the  rear  ends  of  the  tubes  for 
the  flame,  etc.  The  upper  tier  closes  in  to  the  rear  water  leg  and  extends 
forward  to  within  a  few  feet  of  the  front  one,  thus  leaving  the  opening  for 
the  gases  in  front.  The  side  tiles  extend  from  side  walls  to  tile  bars  and 
close  up  to  the  front  water  leg  and  front  wall,  and  leave  open  the  final  up- 
take for  the  waste  gases  over  the  back  part  of  the  shell,  which  is  here  cov- 
ered above  water  line  with  a  row  lock  of  firebrick  resting  on  the  tile  bars. 
The  rear  wall  of  the  setting  and  one  parallel  to  it  arched  over  the  shell  a 
few  feet  forward  form  the  uptakes.  On  these  and  the  rear  portion  of  the 
side  walls  is  placed  a  light  sheet-iron  hood,  from  which  the  breeching  leads 
to  the  chimney.  When  an  iron  stack  is  used  this  hood  is  stiffened  by  L 
and  T  irons  so  that  it  becomes  a  truss  carrying  the  weight  of  such  stack  and 
distributing  it  to  the  side  walls.  A  good  example  of  this  latter  style  of 
braced  hood  is  seen  in  the  half  tone  cut  of  the  People 's  Railway  Co. ,  on 
page  51>  where  the  four  side  walls  of  the  three  200  horse-power  boilers  thus 
carry  the  heavy  stack.  In  the  Central  Distillery  Plant,  (see  half  tone  cut 

—136— 


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Note:    Q.  =? 

Removable  Pluo5 

Detail  of  Water-le.u.  Hand  Hole  Plates  and  Yokes,  etc.,  of  Heine  Boilers. 


on  page  120,  three  of  the  300  horse- power  boilers  are  thus  equipped,  while 
the  fourth  boiler,  put  in  later,  carries  its  stack  in  the  same  way.  In  the 
Union  Depot  Ry.  Plant,  1750  horse-power  (see  half  tone  cut  on  page  128), 
the  hood  is  dispensed  with  and  a  long  breeching,  circle  top,  flat  bottom, 
runs  over  all  the  boilers,  its  width  spanning  the  distance  between  uptake 
walls ;  over  each  boiler  is  placed  a  stout  cast  iron  frame,  bolted  to  the 
bottom  of  the  breeching  and  containing  a  swinging  damper.  The  Anheuser- 
Busch  Plant,  2400  horse-power  (see  half  tone  cut  on  page  170  has  a  circular 
iron  flue  supported  on  I  beams  just  over  the  rear  aisle,  into  which  short 
necks  from  the  hoods  open  from  the  side  ;  each  neck  contains  a  swinging 
damper.  We  are  often  obliged  by  local  circumstances  to  carry  the  breeching 
out  forward  or  midway  of  the  boiler  to  one  side.  There  is  no  difficulty  of 
adapting  our  flue  connections  to  such  conditions.  Swinging  dampers  are 
always  to  be  preferred;  sliding  dampers  are  apt  to  stick,  and  always  require 
considerable  force  to  move  them.  The  cut  on  page  139  shows  the  style  of  setting 
generally  used  by  us.  With  moderate  firing  and  dry  coals,  it  will  practically 
prevent  smoke.  With  highly  bituminous  coals  and  somewhat  pushing  the 
fires  some  smoke  will  result.  The  bridge  wall  is  hollow  and  has  small  slotted 
openings  in  rear  to  deliver  hot  air  into  the  half  consumed  gases  which  roll 
over  the  bridge  wall  into  the  combustion  chamber.  It  receives  its  air  from 
channels  in  the  hollow  side  walls  (controlled  by  small  cast  iron  slides), 
through  a  cross  flue  at  the  rear  end  and  a  number  of  small  flues  under  the 
floor  of  the  combustion  chamber,  as  shown  in  the  cut.  In  the  rear  wall  of 
the  combustion  chamber  is  an  arched  opening,  closed  by  a  cast  iron  door, 
which  in  turn  is  shielded  by  a  dry  firebrick  wall  easily  removable.  For 
special  fuels,  for  smoke  prevention,  etc.,  there  are  now  to  be  had  various 
forms  of  furnaces,  automatic  stokers,  rocking  grate-bars,  etc.  Heine 
boilers  have  been  set  and  operated  successfully  with  these  various  devices. 
They  are  not  all  equally  applicable  in  all  localities  nor  adapted  to  the  same 
conditions.  As  a  rule  we  find  that  our  customers  or  their  engineers  under- 
stand their  local  fuels  and  local  conditions  best,  and  we  are  always  glad  to 
adapt  our  setting  to  such  of  these  devices  as  they  may  select. 

OPERATION. 

The  boiler  being  filled  to  middle  water  line,  the  fire  is  started  on  the 
grate.  The  flame  and  gases  pass  over  the  bridge  wall  and  under  the  lower 
tier  of  tiling,  finding  in  the  ample  combustion  chamber,  space,  temperature 
and  air  supply  for  complete  combustion,  before  bringing  the  heat  in  contact 
with  the  main  body  of  the  tubes.  Then,  when  at  its  best,  it  rises  through 
the  spaces  between  the  rear  ends  of  the  tubes,  between  rear  waterleg  and 
back  end  of  tiling,  and  is  allowed  to  expend  itself  on  the  entire  tube  heating 
surface  without  meeting  any  obstruction.  Ample  space  makes  leisurely  pro- 
gress for  the' flames,  which  meet  in  turn  all  the  tubes,  lap  round  them  and 
finally  reach  the  second  uptake  at  the  forward  end  of  the  top  tier  of  tiling 
with  their  temperature  reduced  tc  less  than  900°  Fahrenheit.  This 
has  been  measured  here,  while  wrought  iron  would  melt  just  above  the  lower 
tubes  at  rear  end,  showing  a  reduction  of  temperature  of  over  1,800° 
Fahrenheit  between  the  two  points.  As  this  space  is  studded  with  water 
tubes  swept  clean  by  a  positive  and  rapid  circulation,  the  absorption  of 
this  great  amount  of  heat  is  explained.  The  gases  next  travel  under  the 
bottom  and  sides  of  the  shell  and  reach  the  uptake  at  just  the  proper  tem- 
perature to  produce  the  draft  required.  This  varies  of  course  according  to 

—138— 


D 

E. 

CD 
o 

1— K 

2* 

£3 

o 

«-K 

rt 
5' 

CD 
o 


chimney,  fuel,  duty  required,  etc.  With  boilers  running  at  their  rated 
capacity  450°  Fahrenheit  are  seldom  exceeded.  Meanwhile  as  soon 
as  the  heat  strikes  the  tubes  the  circulation  of  the  water  begins.  The  water 
nearest  the  surface  of  the  tubes  becoming  warmer  rises,  and  as  the  tubes 
are  higher  in  front  this  water  flows  towards  the  front  water  leg  where  it 
rises  into  the  shell,  while  colder  water  from  the  shell  falls  down  the  rear 
water  leg  to  replace  that  flowing  forward  and  upward  through  the  tubes. 

This  circulation,  at  first  slow,  increases  in  speed  as  soon  as  steam  begins 
to  form.  Then  the  speed  with  which  the  mingled  current  of  steam  and 
water  rises  in  the  forward  water  leg  will  depend  on  the  difference  in  weight 
of  this  mixture,  and  the  solid  and  slightly  colder  water  falling  down  the 
rear  water  leg.  The  cause  of  its  motion  is  exactly  the  same  as  that  which 
produces  draft  in  a  chimney  as  explained  in  the  discussion  of  "A  Modern 
Boiler  Plant"  page  116.  The  maximum  velocity  will  be  reached  when  the 
mixture  is  about  half  steam  and  half  water.  As  the  area  of  the  throat  of 
the  water  leg  is  practically  equivalent  to  the  aggregate  tube  area  (offsetting  the 
greater  amount  of  skin  friction  in  the  tubes  against  the  reduced  area  of  the 
throat),  there  will  be  nothing  to  interfere  with  the  free  action  of  gravity  and 
the  full  speed  will  be  maintained  as  long  as  steam  is  being  made.  This  circu- 
lation must  be  well  borne  in  mind.  It  is  forward  through  the  tubes,  upward 
through  the  front  water  leg,  to  the  rear  in  the  shell,  and  down  through  the 
rear  water  leg.  At  the  forward  throat  of  the  shell  the  channel  slightly  en- 
larges by  reason  of  two  outward  flanges  of  the  water  leg.  This  greatly 
facilitates  the  liberation  of  the  steam,  and  is  the  best  form  of  orifice.  (Bate- 
man's  experiments,  Proc.  Inst.  Mech.  Eng'rs,  1866,  gives  this  form  of  orifice 
95  per  cent  of  theoretical  capacity.)  The  deflection  plate  L  assists  in 
directing  the  circulation  of  the  water  to  the  rear.  Thus  the  steam  bubbles 
obtain  a  trend  towards  the  rear,  throwing  the  spray  in  a  direction  away 
from  the  flow  of  steam.  It  also  has  the  effect  of  increasing  the  liberating 
surface.  For  each  section  of  this  moving  surface  of  water,  as  it  is  deliver- 
ing its  load  of  steam,  sweeps  rapidly  to  the  rear,  making  room  for  the  next 
section,  thus  constantly  presenting  a  fresh  surface  for  this  work. 

The  shallowness  of  the  water  at  the  front  of  the  shell  makes  it  easier 
for  the  steam  to  pass  through;  its  depth  at  the  rear  ensures  a  solid  body  0f 
water  for  replenishing  the  rear  water  leg  and  tubes.  The  height  of  the 
steam  space  in  front  removes  the  nozzle  far  out  of  reach  of  any  spray;  the 
deflection  plate  catches  and  deflects  any  sudden  spurt,  while  finally  the  dry 
pan  or  dry  pipe  draws  the  steam  from  a  large  area,  from  three  sides,  thus 
preventing  any  local  disturbance.  These  appliances  make  it  possible  to  run 
the  Heine  Boiler  50  per  cent  above  rating  with  less  than  one-fifth  of  one  per 
cent  entrainment. 

The  action  of  the  mud  drum  is  as  follows:  The  feed  water  enters  it 
through  the  pipe  F  about  one-half  inch  above  its  bottom;  even  if  it  has 
previously  passed  the  best  heaters  it  is  colder  than  the  water  in  the  boiler. 
Hence  it  drops  to  the  bottom,  and,  impelled  by  the  pump  or  injector, 
passes  at  a  greatly  reduced  speed  to  the  rear  of  the  mud  drum.  As  it  is 
gradually  heated  to  near  boiler  temperature  it  rises  and  flows  slowly  in  re- 
verse direction  to  the  open  front  of  the  mud  drum;  here  it  passes  over  in  a 
thin  sheet  and  is  immediately  swept  backward  into  the  main  body  of  water 
by  the  swift  circulation,  thus  becoming  thoroughly  mixed  with  it  before  it 

—140— 


readies  the  tubes.  During  this  process  the  mud,  lime  salts  and  other  pre- 
cipitates are  deposited  as  a  sort  oi  semi-fluid  "sludge"  near  the  rear  end  of 
the  mud  drum,  whence  it  is  blown  off  at  frequent  intervals  through  the 
blow-off  valve  N.  As  the  speed  in  the  mud  drum  is  only  about  one-fiftieth 
of  that  in  the  feed  water  pipe,  plenty  of  time  is  given  for  this  action.  Any 
precipitates  which  may  escape  the  mud  drum  at  first,  will  of  course  form  a 
scale  on  the  inside  of  the  tubes,  etc.  But  the  action  of  expansion  and 
contraction  cracks  off  scale  on  the  inside  of  a  tube  much  faster  than  on  the 
outside,  and  then  the  circulation  sweeps  the  small  chips,  like  broken  egg- 
shells, upward,  and  as  they  pass  over  the  mouth  of  the  mud  drum  they  drop 
in  the  eddy,  lose  velocity  in  this  slow  current  and  fall  to  the  bottom,  and, 
being  pushed  by  the  feed  current  to  the  rear  end,  are  blown  off  from  the 
mud  drum  with  other  refuse.  On  opening  a  Heine  boiler  after  some  months 
service,  such  bits  of  scale,  whose  shape  identifies  them,  are  always  found 
in  the  mud  of  the  mud  drum.  Very  little  loose  scale  is  found  on  the 
bottom  of  the  water  legs;  the  current  through  the  lower  tubes,  always  the 
swiftest,  brushes  too  near  the  bottom  to  allow  much  to  lodge  there. 

This  explanation  of  the  action  of  the  mud  drum  shows  how  the 
inside  of  the  tubes  may  be  kept  clean.  To  keep  the  outside  clear  of  soot  and 
ashes  which  deposit  on,  and  sometimes  even  bake  fast  to  the  tubes,  each 
boiler  is  provided  with  two  special  nozzles  with  both  side  and  front  outlets, 
a  short  one  for  the  rear,  a  long  one  for  the  front.  They  are  of  three-eighth 
inch  gas  pipe  and  each  is  supplied  with  steam  by  a  one-half  inch  steam  hose. 
The  nozzle  is  passed  through  each  stay  bolt  in  turn,  and  thus  delivers 
its  side  jets  on  the  three  or  four  tubes  adjacent,  with  the  full  force  of  the 
steam,  at  the  short  range  of  two  inches,  knocking  the  soot  and  ashes  off  com- 
pletely, while  the  end  jet  carries  them  into  the  main  draft  current  to  lodge 
at  points  in  breeching  or  chimney  base  convenient  for  their  ultimate  removal. 
An  inspection  of  the  cuts  will  show  that  the  stay  bolts  are  so  located 
that  the  nozzle  can  in  turn  be  brought  to  bear  on  all  sides  of  the  tubes.  As 
soon  as  the  nozzle  is  withdrawn  from  the  stay  bolt,  this  is  closed  air-tight 
by  a  plain  wooden  plug. 

In  cleaning  a  boiler  it  is  only  necessary  to  remove  every  fourth  or  fifth 
handhole  plate  in  the  front  water  leg;  the  water  hose,  supplied  with  a 
short  nozzle,  can  be  entered  in  all  the  adjacent  tubes,  owing  to  the 
ample  dimensions  of  the  water  leg.  In  the  rear  water  leg  only  one  or  two 
handholes  in  the  lower  row  need  be  opened  to  let  the  water  and  debris 
escape.  The  others  in  rear  water  leg  are  frequently  left  untouched  for  years. 
A  lamp  or  candle  hung  on  a  wire  through  the  manhead  may  be  held  oppo- 
site each  tube  so  that  it  can  be  perfectly  inspected  from  the  front.  Once  or 
twice  a  year,  where  the  water  is  very  scale  bearing,  it  may  be  advisable 
to  take  off  all  the  handhole  plates  of  the  front  water  leg  and  pass  a 
scraper  through  all  the  tubes  in  succession.  Aside  from  the  plain  cylinder 
boiler  there  is  no  boiler  so  completely  accessible  for  internal  and  external 
inspection  as  the  Heine.  The  ashes  which  deposit  in  the  combustion 
chamber  are  removed  through  the  ashpit  door  in  the  rear  wall,  never  allow- 
ing it  to  become  more  than  one-third  full. 

We  furnish  with  each  boiler  a  set  of  "Rules  for  operation"  in  a  neat 
frame,  adapted  to  be  hung  up  in  the  boiler  room. 


—141— 


SUPERIORITY   OF  THE  HEINE  SAFETY  BOILER. 

In  the  discussion  of  A  Modern  Steam  Plant  we  have  pointed  out  the 
four  principal  offices  of  a  good  boiler,  and  have  explained  why  water 
tube  boilers  best  fulfill  the  conditions  of  the  problem.  Without  denying 
the  merits  of  other  systems  of  construction,  we  claim  that  the  Heine  boiler 
stands  at  the  very  head  and  front  in  the  good  qualities  essential  to  complete 
performance. 

1st.     it  bestabsorbs  and  transmits  beat;  hence  economy  and  capacity. 

2d.      it  will  bold  high  pressures  with  greatest  safety. 

3d.      it  best  separates  the  Steam  from  the  Water,  ensuring  Dryness. 

4th.    it  is  best  adapted  to  precipitate  and  discharge  scale  and  mud. 

We  ask  a  fair  and  critical  examination  of  our  description  of  the  Heine 
Boiler,  to  which  we  shall  refer  in  elucidating  the  above  points. 

ABSORPTION  AND  TRANSMISSION  OF  HEAT. 

This,  the  most  important  work  of  the  boiler,  determines  its  economy 
and  capacity,  and  must  be  discussed  in  connection  with  the  furnace  and 
the  draft.  For  it  is  not  sufficient  to  so  construct  the  boiler  that  it  will 
best  absorb  and  transmit  the  heat,  but  it  must  also  be  so  arranged  that  the 
heat  can  best  reach  it,  and  that  nothing  in  its  design  will  interfere  with  the 
best  plan  of  furnace  construction,  nor  increase  unnecessarily  the  demands 
on  the  chimney. 

For  absorbing  and  transmitting  heat  nothing  can  be  better  than  a  nest 
of  tubes  placed  entirely  in  the  flue,  which  the  hot  products  of  combustion 
must  traverse  on  their  way  from  combustion  chamber  to  chimney,  especi- 
ally when  free  and  unimpeded  circulation  of  the  water  is  provided  for. 
Mr.  Babcock,  in  his  interesting  lecture  on  water  circulation  (Cornell  Uni- 
versity, 1890),  has  shown  with  great  clearness  that  it  depends,  not  as  some 
have  supposed,  on  the  amount  of  inclination  of  the  tubes,  but  "is  a  func- 
tion of  the  difference  in  density  of  the  two  columns,"  the  one  of  mingled 
steam  and  water,  the  other  of  solid  water.  The  simple  mode  of  calculation 
he  suggests  for  finding  the  velocity  of  circulation  gives  us  about  twelve  to 
eighteen  feet  as  the  average  natural  speeds  for  that  general  class  of  water 
tube  boilers  of  which  the  Heine  is  a  type.  The  cause  of  the  circulation 
once  understood,  it  is  clear  that  any  sharp  turns  or  contractions  which  offer 
resistance  to  the  flow  will  retard  it  in  two  ways.  First,  by  altering  the 
conditions  of  equilibrium  on  which  the  speed  depends.  Second,  since  a 
river  can  not  rise  higher  than  its  source,  the  speed  lost  by  such  an  obstacle 
cannot  be  regained;  the  loss  in  speed  at  this  point  will  therefore  be  mul- 
tiplied, at  other  points  having  larger  areas,  by  the  ratio  those  areas  bear 
to  this  contracted  one.  In  most  boilers  of  this  class  there  are  between  the 
tubes  and  the  drum  several  points  where  the  contents  of  seven,  nine  or 

—142— 


even  twelve  tubes  have  to  pass  through  an  opening  equal  to  one  tube  area. 
Every  such  place  first  disturbs  the  conditions  on  which  the  speed  depends 
by  absorbing  some  of  the  existing  "head"  (or  difference  in  weight).  Sec- 
ond, the  maximum  speed  depending  on  the  head  can  exist  only  at  the  least 
such  opening,  and  hence  in  the  nest  of  tubes  the  circulation  will  be  re- 
duced to  one-seventh,  one  ninth,  or  one-twelfth  of  the  natural  speed. 
In  Heine  Boilers  there  are  no  such  contractions  of  area,  even  the  smallest 
throat  areas  being  65  to  90  per  cent  of  the  aggregate  tube  area. 

The  Heine  Boiler  gains  another  advantage  from  this  fact.  The  water 
in  the  upper  tubes  having  less  "head,"  begins  with  less  speed  than  that  in 
the  lower  tier;  the  heating  surface  of  the  upper  tubes  will  then  be  somewhat 
less  active  than  that  of  the  lower  tubes.  Since  they  get  the  first  heat, 
more  steam  will  be  made  in  the  lower  tubes,  further  increasing  the  original 
difference  in  velocity.  The  combined  effect  is  that  the  circulation  through 
the  lower  tubes  is  much  faster  than  through  the  upper  ones.  The  obstruc- 
tions before  noted  will  multiply  this  difference,  since  only  the  more  rapid 
current  will  there  make  its  way  at  the  expense  of  the  sluggish  one.  Thus 
the  effectiveness  of  the  upper  tubes  is  largely  curtailed.  The  full  throat 
area  of  the  Heine  Boiler,  on  the  other  hand,  leaves  room  for  all  the  cur- 
rents, hence  the  full  efficiency  of  the  upper  tubes  is  preserved. 

In  the  older  types  of  this  class  of  water  tube  boilers  the  tubes  only  are 
inclined,  and  therefore  the  return  circulation  in  the  rear  has  to  pass  through 
small  tubes  several  feet  in  length,  nearly  vertical.  The  escaping  gases 
pass  around  them,  tending  to  create  an  upward  circulation  along  the  sur- 
face, which  must  somewhat  check  the  downward  flow.  Everybody  daily 
observes  that  water  invariably  "swirls"  when  it  escapes  through  a  small 
round  hole  or  a  tube  from  a  wash  bowl,  bath  tub  or  barrel.  We  all  know 
how  vexatious  is  the  delay  caused  by  it.  This  action,  being  independent 
of  the  surrounding  pressure,  takes  place  in  the  short  tubes  just  mentioned, 
and  retards  the  flow. 

In  the  Heine  boiler  this  is  done  away  with.  The  water  at  the  rear  end 
of  the  shell  is  about  a  foot  deeper  than  in  front,  the  openings  are  large  and 
rectangular,  and  the  downward  flow  is  through  a  rectangular  chamber 
equal  in  section  to  the  aggregate  tube  area.  Swirling  is  impossible  and 
the  tubes  are  fully  supplied  with  solid  water  under  all  circumstances. 

The  circulation  of  the  water  is  the  life  of  all  water  tube  boilers. 
Craddock's  experiments  show  how  its  speed  multiplies  the  effectiveness 
of  heating  surface.  Details  of  construction  which  reduce  it  to  less  than 
one-fifth  its  natural  velocity  are  therefore  faulty,  especially  when  this  re- 
duced speed  is  found  in  the  tubes.  The  Heine  Boiler  carefully  avoids  any 
such  obstructions  and  the  natural  speed  of  circulation  is  maintained 
throughout. 

Therefore  the  effectiveness  of  its  heating  surface  for  the  absorption 
and  transmission  of  heat  is  much  greater  than  that  of  other  boilers. 

All  fuels  require  much  air,  great  heat,  space  for  expansion,  and  time 
for  their  complete  combustion.  An  arched  chamber,  composed  entirely  of 
fire  brick,  would  be  the  ideal  furnace,  in  which  combustion  should  be 
completed  without  meeting  any  cooling  surface,  the  products  when  at  their 
greatest  temperature  to  be  launched  into  and  amongst  the  heating  surfaces 
of  the  boiler.  The  nearer  a  furnace  can  be  made  to  approach  these  condi- 
tions the  better  will  be  its  work.  The  other  extreme  is  the  internally  fired 

—143— 


boiler,  whose  performance  on  bituminous  coals  is  very  inferior  in  spite  ot 
its  smaller  loss  by  radiation.  Between  them  lie  the  return  tubular  boilers, 
and  those  water  tube  boilers  whose  furnaces  are  separated  from  their  com- 
bustion chambers  by  the  first  pass  of  the  nest  of  tubes.  The  heating  sur- 
faces of  a  boiler  are  such  for  the  water  only;  in  reference  to  the  flame 
they  are  cooling  surfaces.  Brought  in  contact  with  the  gases  at  the  be 
ginning  of  combustion  they  lower  their  temperature  below  the  required 
point.  This  results  in  the  direct  loss  of  much  of  the  heating  power  of 
the  volatile  part  of  the  fuel  which  escapes  unburnt,  and  in  the  indirect  loss 
due  to  impairment  of  the  conductivity  of  the  heating  surface  owing  to  de- 
posit of  much  soot.  As  the  first  third  of  the  heating  surface  thus  encoun- 
tered absorbs  between  60  and  70  per  cent  of  the  heat  (Graham's  experi- 
ments, 1858),  it  is  useless  to  expect  secondary  combustion  of  any  practical 
value  in  a  combustion  chamber  placed  beyond  it,  with  no  means  of  restor- 
ing the  lost  temperature.  This  method  of  construction  probably  grew  out 
of  the  pretty  widespread  belief  that  heating  surface  placed  at  right  angles 
to  the  course  of  the  flame  was  much  more  effective  than  in  any  other  rela- 
tive position.  Even  if  this  were  true  the  old  adage,  "always  catch  your 
hare  before  you  cook  him,"  should  induce  prudent  men  not  to  allow  its 
application  to  vitiate  their  furnace  construction.  It  is  probably  true  only 
for  radiant  heat;  no  experiments  are  adduced  to  prove  it  true  for  currents 
of  hot  gas;  there  it  is  plainly  a  case  of  "faith  without  works."  On  the 
other  hand  German  experiments  (Stuehlen  Ing.  Kal.,  1892)  show  tube 
heating  surface  parallel  to  the  current  30  per  cent  more  effective  than 
when  placed  at  right  angles.  The  Heine  boiler  setting  approximates  the 
ideal  furnace.  Fire  place  and  combustion  chamber  are  of  fire  brick,  except 
that  minimnm  of  tube  surface  required  to  support  the  fire  brick  roof,  ex- 
perience having  shown  that  arches  are  too  short-lived  where  the  soda 
of  the  ashes  under  high  temperatures  fluxes  the  fire  brick.  The  radiation 
from  side  walls  and  floor  is  arrested  and  utilized  to  pre-heat  the  small 
amount  of  air  thrown  into  the  gases  at  the  bridge  wall.  Having  passed 
the  combustion  chamber,  flame  and  gases  are  thrown  in  contact  with  the 
whole  of  the  tube  heating  surface,  which  they  envelope  and  strike  at  all 
angles,  the  main  trend  being  parallel  to  the  tubes.  Observation  shows 
that  they  roll  around,  mix,  break  up,  combine,  etc.,  according  to  natural 
laws,  and  following  many  causes,  to  the  apparent  neglect  of  some  single  one 
the  professor  may  lay  down  in  the  lecture  room,  or  the  draftsman  prescribe 
by  the  conventional  arrow.  In  the  Heine  boiler  and  furnace  we  arrange 
for  space,  time,  air  and  heat  for  the  best  combustion,  then  open  out  into 
an  ample  flue,  containing  all  the  tubes,  and  like  the  Brooklyn  alderman 
with  the  gondolas,  "leave  the  rest  to  nature."  The  small  tiles  on  the 
upper  and  lower  tier  of  tubes  make  adjustments  of  flue  areas,  to  suit  local 
and  possibly  changing  requirements,  possible  at  all  times.  The  trend  of 
the  gases  is  the  natural  one,  rising  gradually  towards  the  stack.  We  thus 
avoid  that  loss  in  chimney  power  incident  to  pulling  hot  gases  downwards 
against  their  bent. 

Having  shown  that  with  the  most  free  circulation  of  the  water,  we  con- 
bine  the  best  furnace  arrangement,  the  natural  circulation  of  the  hot  gases, 
the  equal  exposure  of  the  total  heating  surface  to  them,  and  the  least  de- 
mands on  the  chimney,  we  have  explained  why  the  Heine  Boiler  ranks  first 
in  economy  and  capacity.  Our  many  customers  will  gladly  attest  the  results. 

—14.")— 


The  facilities  for  observing  and  cleaning  the  heating  surfaces  through 
Ihe  hollow  staybolts  have  been  fully  explained  in  the  description  of  the 
boiler.  The  effect  of  this  on  the  economy  and  capacity  must  be  here 
noted.  As  human  nature  goes,  the  fireman  will  not  begin  to  clean  the 
heating  surfaces  until  he  has  to.  In  the  Heine  boiler,  as  he  blows  through 
each  staybolt  in  turn,  the  cleaned  section  and  increased  draft  reward  him 
at  once  by  a  rise  in  the  steam  pressure  while  cleaning.  Under  the  old 
plan  of  cleaning  through  side  doors  in  the  walls,  cold  air  rushes  in,  and 
the  pressure  drops  while  cleaning,  and  does  not  rise  again  until  the  work 
is  completed  and  the  doors  again  closed.  Furthermore,  the  absence  of 
these  doors  in  the  side  walls  of  the  Heine  boiler  makes  them  less  liable  to 
crack  and  leak. 

SAFETY  AT   HIGH   PRESSURES. 

This  depends  on  the  qualities  of  the   materials,  the  workmanship,  the 
proper  arrangement  of  the  parts,  avoidance  of  unequal  expansion  and  con 
traction,  and  accessibility  for  inspection,  cleaning  and  repairs. 

We  use  no  cast  iron  in  any  parts  .subject  to  tensile  stress.  In  this  we 
follow  the  rule  laid  down  by  the  AMERICAN  BOILER  MANUFACT- 
URER'S ASSOCIATION  (Proceedings  1889): 

CAST  IRON— Should  be  of  soft,  gray  texture  and  high  degree  of  ductil- 
ity. To  be  used  only  for  hand-hole  plates,  crabs,  yokes,  etc., 
and  manheads.  It  is  a  dangerous  metal  to  be  used  in  mud 
drums,  legs,  necks,  headers,  manhole  rings,  or  any  part  of  a 
boiler  subject  to  tensile  strains;  its  use  should  be  prohib- 
ited for  such  parts." 

For  shells,  water  legs  and  drums  we  use  a  first-class  flange  steel  made 
for  us  and  inspected  before  it  leaves  the  steel  works  under  the  following: 

SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  BOILER  PLATES  FOR  HEINE  SAFETY 

BOILERS. 

STEEL.— Homogeneous  Steel  made  by  the  OPEN  HEARTH  process, 
and  having  the  following  qualities: 

TENSILE  STRENGTH.— 55,000  to  62,000  Ibs.  per  square  inch. 

ELASTIC  LIMIT.— Not  under  32,000  Ibs.  per  square  inch. 

ELONGATION.— 20  per  cent  for  plates  &  inch  thick  or  less,  22  %  per  cent 
for  plates  over  r6g  inch  and  under  ^  inch  thick,  25  per  cent 
for  plates  ^4  inch  thick  and  over. 

TEST  SECTION.— To  be  8  inches  long,  planed  or  milled  edges;  its  crosi. 
sectional  area  shall  not  be  less  than  one-half  of  one  square 
inch,  nor  shall  its  width  ever  be  less  than  the  thickness  of  the 
plate.  Every  third  test  piece  to  be  of  the  shape  and  dimen- 
sions prescribed  by  the  rules  of  the  United  States  Board  of 
Supervising  Inspectors  of  Steamboats. 

BENDING  TEST.— Steel  up  to  %  inch  thickness  must  stand  hot  and  cold 
bending  double,  and  being  hammered  down  on  itself;  above 
that  thickness,  it  must  bend  round  a  mandrel  of  diameter  one 
and  one-half  times  the  thickness  of  plate  down  to  180°  .  All 
without  showing  signs  of  distress. 

NICKED  SAMPLE.— When  a  sample  is  broken,  after  being  nicked,  the 
appearance  of  laminations  or  cold  shuts,  shall  cause  the  re- 
jection of  the  plates  represented  by  the  sample. 

—146— 


ALL  TESTS.— To  be  made  at  the  steel  mill  by  the  inspectors  of  the  Robert 
W.  Hunt  &  Co.  Bureau  of  Inspection  and  Tests. 

CHEMICAL  TESTS— Will  be  required,  and  if  they  show  more  than ^0.04 
per  cent  Phosphorus,  or  more  than  0.03  per  cent  Sulphur,  the 
plates  will  be  rejected. 

This  is  the  same  as  the  standard  adopted  by  the  Americal  Boiler  Man- 
ufacturers' Association,  except  that  we  have  increased  the  requirements 
for  elongation  somewhat;  we  have  further  added  the  tests  on  the  section 
used  by  the  United  States  Board  of  Supervising  Inspectors,  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  cities  prescribing  the  ''Marine"  tests.  It  is  well  known 
that  the  same  steel  will  show  higher  t.  s.  on  the  "Marine"  section  than  on 
the  8  inch  section,  but  the  latter  is  best  for  showing  the  elongation. 

The  tubes  are  the  standard  American  wrought  iron  boiler  tubes,  all 
tested  by  hydrostatic  pressure  at  the  tube  mills.  They  are  intended  to  be 
the  weakest  parts  of  the  structure.  As  already  explained,  a  tube  giving 
way  from  internal  pressure  surfers  a  local  rupture  merely;  the  boiler  will 
require  several  minutes  to  empty  itself  through  a  tube,  resulting  in  a 
gradual  though  rapid  decrease  of  pressure,  an  extinguishing  of  the  fire,  and 
no  explosion. 

The  staybolts  are  made  of  best  butt-welded  hydraulic  tubing.  The 
threads  on  them  are  therefore  cut  into  solid  metal  all  around,  which 
would  be  doubtful  were  lap-welded  or  built  up  tubing  used.  They  are  so 
proportioned  that  in  testing  to  rupture  they  part  in  the  solid  metal  but 
do  not  strip  the  thread.  The  ends  are  carefully  peaned  over. 

The  rivets  are  according  to  American  Boiler  Manufacturer's  Association 
standard,  which  we  quote: 

"RIVETS  to  be  made  of  good  charcoal  iron,  or  of  a  very  soft,  mild  steel 
running  between  50.000  and  60,000  pounds  tensile  strength 
and  showing  an  elongation  of  not  less  than  30  per  cent  in 
eight  inches,  and  having  the  same  chemical  composition  as 
specified  for  plates." 

In  all  the  processes  of  manufacture  we  follow  the  best  boiler  shop  prac- 
tice of  the  United  States  as  laid  down  by  the  American  Boiler  Manufactur- 
ers' Association,  as  for  instance  in  the  rule  for  flanging: 
"FLANGING  to  be  done  at  not  less  than  a  good,  red  heat.     Not  a  single 
blow  to  be  given  after  the  plate  is  cooled  down  to  less  than 
cherry  red  by  daylight.     After  flanging,  all  plates  should  be 
annealed  by  uniform  cooling  from  an  even  dull  red  heat  for 
the  whole  sheet  in  the  open  air." 

Having  built  up  our  boiler  of  the  very  best  materials,  and  by  the  best 
methods  of  workmanship,  we  erect  it  in  such  a  way  that  there  can  be  no 
unequal  expansion  strains. 

The  entirely  free  and  unchecked  circulation  of  water  and  fire  has  been 
fully  explained;  this  equalizes  temperatures  not  only  when  in  full  opera- 
tion, but  as  soon  as  the  fire  is  lit.  This  can  be  verified  by  feeling  the  ends 
cf  shell  and  water  legs  when  starting  fires.  Besides  this  there  is  another 


—147— 


equalizing  tendency.  The  shell  will  stretch  more  than  the  tubes  from 
the  internal  pressure;  the  lower  tubes  receiving  greater  heat,  will  expand 
more  from  this  cause.  The  two  tendencies  counterbalance  beautifully,  as 
can  be  verified  by  delicate  measurements  on  any  Heine  boiler  while  cold 
and  while  hot  and  under  heavy  pressure. 

Our  method  of  supporting  the  boiler  on  the  water  legs,  the  front  one 
on  a  fixed  support,  the  rear  one  on  rollers,  gives  freedom  for  expansion 
without  undue  stress  on  any  part.  The  weight  of  the  boiler  filled  with 
water  is  thus  carried  on  its  strongest  parts.  Most  sectional  boilers  can 
not  be  thus  supported,  having  in  place  of  the  water  legs,  loose,  many- 
jointed  constructions  incapable  of  supporting  any  extra  weight. 

It  is  evident  that  ours  is  a  much  better  way  to  support  a  boiler  than  to 
hang  it  from  a  gallows  frame  by  bolts  or  links.  For  these  concentrate 
strains  equal  to  the  whole  weight  of  boiler  and  water  on  two  points  of  the 
shell,  thus  disturbing  that  equilibrium  of  stress  obtained  by  giving  it  the 
cylindrical  form.  Another  signal  advantage  of  the  Heine  boiler  is  that  it 
is  completed  and  thoroughly  tested  in  the  boiler  shop  before  shipment. 

Our  style  of  setting,  with  horizontal  travel  of  the  gases,  has  two  further 
advantages  over  the  up  and  down  method. 

1st.  The  cold  air  which  rushes  into  the  furnace  when  the  doors  are 
opened  for  firing  is  drawn  to  the  rear,  away  from  the  tube  joints,  in  place 
of  up  and  among  them. 

2nd.  The  hot  gases  do  not  reach  the  shell  until  after  passing  the 
entire  tube  heating  surface,  being  then  no  longer  hot  enough  to  injure  a 
rivet  joint;  in  the  up  and  down  type  they  make  their  first  turn  under  a 
rivet  joint  of  the  shell,  after  traversing  only  a  third  of  the  tube  surface, 
and  in  what  is  considered  a  combustion  chamber  hot  enough  to  regenerate 
the  flame.  Hence  our  shells  are  safer! 

In  all  water  tube  boilers  access  must  be  had  to  each  tube  through  some 
form  of  hand  hole  plate.  Some  have  each  group  of  two,  three  or  more 
tubes  controlled  by  a  hand  hole  plate,  some  each  single  tube.  Of  course 
the  larger  each  such  plate  the  more  danger  of  cracks,  leakage  of  joints, 
etc.  Elsewhere  we  have  explained  why  only  a  few  hand  hole  plates  of 
each  set  have  to  be  removed  for  washing  out  a  Heine  boiler.  But  besides 
this  our  hand  hole  plates  are  much  safer  than  others  in  general  use.  A 
typical  form  for  sectional  boilers  is  shown  below.  T  T  are  the  ends  of  the 


— US 


tubes  and  the  joints  are  made  outside  as  at  J.  J.  on  the  cap  C.  On  the 
inside  is  merely  a  yoke  Y  to  hold  up  the  bolt  B.  This  of  course  necessi- 
tates another  joint  j  under  the  nwt.  These  joints  have  to  be  made  tight 
wliile  the  boiler  is  cold;  this  requires  a  nice  exercise  of  judgment,  since 
strain  enough  must  be  put  on  the  bolt  both  to  counterbalance  the  internal 
pressure  of  the  boiler  when  steam  is  raised,  and  enough  more  to  keep  the 
joint  tight  then.  In  other  words,  the  stretch  of  the  bolt  has  to  be  antici- 
pated and  more  strain  added.  And  this  double  strain  is  always  on  the 
bolt  whether  the  boiler  is  under  steam  or  idle.  It  will  not  do  to  tighten 
up  on  the  bolt  when  the  boiler  is  under  steam.  For  leakage  around  the 
threads  will  soon  fill  the  hollow  cap  of  the  nut,  which  at  any  additional 
turn  of  the  nut  will  crack  it  open  by  hydrostatic  pressure.  If  we  have  a 
hand  hole  of  4^  inches  diameter  we  have  an  area  of  15.9  square  inches  to 
cover.  At  125  pounds  steam  pressure  we  have  1,987  pounds  pressure 
under  the  cap  and  about  150  pounds  more  under  the  nut  to  counteract  be- 
fore any  strain  becomes  available  to  make  the  joints  tight.  It  has  often 
happened  that  a  cracked  nut  has  caused  a  cap  to  blow  off,  scalding  the  at- 
tendants. 


With  the  Heine  boiler  the  case  is  reversed;  the  single  joint  at  J 
is  an  inside  one,  this  pressure  of  1,987  pounds  makes  the  joint,  so  that 

the  bolts  can  be  drawn  up  when  under  steam,  receiving  but  a  trifling  strain. 
It  is  clear  that  this  is  the  safe  plan,  while  the  other  is  not.  We  have  thus 
shown  that  in  materials,  workmanship,  general  design,  settings,  and  in  de- 
tails of  construction  the  Heine  boiler  is  the  safest. 

SEPARATION  OF  WATER;  DRYNESS  OF  STEAM. 

In  describing  the  functions  of  a  boiler  in  a  modern  steam  plant  we  have 
shown  to  what  causes  the  entrainment  of  water  is  due.  The  description 
of  the  Heine  boiler  shows  how  the  entirely  unchecked  circulation  tends 
away  from  the  steam  nozzle.  The  steam  bubbles,  lighter  than  the  water, 
pass  through  it  on  some  diagonal  course,  a  resultant  from  their  own  verti- 
cal trend  and  the  backward  flow  of  the  water.  This  throws  the  spray 
away  from  the  vapor  with  a  momentum  about  two  hundred  times  that  of 
the  steam  which  flows  towards  the  nozzle,  with  about  one -fourth  of  the 

—149— 


speed  it  attains  in  the  steam  pipe.  The  function  of  the  dry  pipe  or  dry 
pan  is  well  understood.  Add  this,  and  the  action  just  described,  to  the  fact 
that  the  inclination  of  our  shell  removes  the  water  line  further  from  the 
steam  nozzle  than  in  other  boilers,  and  the  reason  why  our  steam  is  always 
dry  becomes  clear.  An  active  agency  for  drying  the  steam,  present  at  all 
times  in  the  boiler,  more  vigorous  the  more  the  boiler  is  pushed,  ensures 
dry  steam  always.  On  forcing  tests  we  have  shown  steam  six  times  as  dry 
as  our  competitors.  This  has  a  decisive  influence  on  the  every  day  econ- 
omy of  a  steam  plant. 

PRECIPITATION  AND  DISCHARGE  OF  SCALE   AND  MUD. 

The  Heine  Boiler  was  originally  developed  under  the  difficult  condi- 
tions of  boiler  practice  in  the  great  Mississippi  Valley.  The  problem  was 
not  only  the  economic  utilization  of  the  highly  bituminous  coals,  low  in 
calorific  value  as  they  are  high  in  ash  and  volatile  matter,  but  also  the 
making  of  steam  from  water  strongly  impregnated  with  mineral  salts 
and  frequently  carrying  a  brown  mixture  of  the  sacred  soils  of  several 
great  States. 

The  faults  of  the  old  style  of  mud  drum  were  here  but  too  apparent. 
The  various  ingenious  coil  devices  choked  up  the  faster,  the  more  effective 
they  were.  The  "Spray  Feeds"  wet  the  steam  in  the  exact  ratio  of  their 
efficiency  in  scale  precipitation.  'The  Heine  mud  drum,  holding  the  in- 
coming feed  water  suspended  for  a  time  in  an  almost  quiescent  state,  while 
subject  to  the  external  contact  of  a  rapid  current  of  the  hottest  water  in 
the  boiler,  furnishes  time,  checked  velocity  and  heat  to  induce  precipi- 
tation. The  necessity  of  a  high  temperature  to  make  the  mineral  salts  in- 
soluble has  been  before  explained.  Evidence  of  it  is  found  in  every  boiler. 
It  is  well  known  that  any  reduction  in  velocity  favors  the  dropping  of 
sediment.  Instead  of  checking  the  speed  of  circulation  in  the  tubes 
where  the  precipitates  do  harm,  the  Heine  boiler  provides  this  mud  drum 
where  no  fire  can  get  at  them  to  bake  them  into  scale,  but  where  they  can 
be  collected  and  blown  off  at  such  intervals  as  their  amount  prescribes. 

The  fact  that  we  have  successfully  replaced  two-flue  boilers  in  local- 
ities where  return  tubulars  were  tabooed  on  account  of  bad  water  proves 
the  practical  efficiency  of  our  free  circulation  and  submerged  mud  drum. 


—150— 


Chicago  Athletic  Club, 

CHICAGO,  ILL. 
Contains  300  H.  P.  Heine  Boilers. 


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-152— 


TABLE  No.  n. 


Diameters,  Circumferences  and  Areas  of  Circles. 


Advancing  by  lOths. 

Advancing  by  8ths. 

& 

5 

Circum. 

« 

B 

5 

e 

3 

U 

2 

E 

5 

B 

U 

a 
<u 

as 
Q 

E 
u 

u 

1 

£ 

5 

a 

3 

U 

a 
| 

a 

Q 

a 

3 

0 

a 
E 

0,0 
0,1 

0,00000 
0,31416 

0,000000 
0,007854 

80 
1 

25,13;; 

25,447 

50,2655 
51,5300 

16,0  50,'265|201,062j 
Ii50,580  203,583 

0 

Vs 

0,000 
0,393 

0,0000 
0,0123 

10 

Vs 

31,42 
31,81 

78,540 
80,516 

20 

Vs 

62,83 
63,22 

314,16 
318,10 

0,2 

0,62832  0,031416 

2 

25,761 

52,8102 

2  50,894  206,120! 

14 

0,785 

0,0491 

14 

32,20 

82.516 

14 

63,62 

322,06 

0,3 

0,94248 

0,070686 

3 

26,075 

54,1061 

3  51,208 

208,672 

% 

1,178 

0,1104 

%    32,59 

84,541 

% 

64,01 

326,05 

0,4 

1,2566 

0,125664 

4 

26.389 

55,4177 

4  51,522 

211,241 

V2 

1,571 

0,1963 

Va    32,99 

86,590 

V2 

64,40 

330,06 

0,5 

1,5708 

0,196350 

5 

26,704 

56,7450 

5 

51,836 

213,825 

% 

1,963 

0,3068 

S/g 

33,38 

88,664 

fyg 

64,80 

334,10 

0,6 

1,8850 

0,282743 

6 

27,018 

58,0880 

6 

52,150 

216,424 

ft 

2,356 

0,4418 

ft 

33,77 

90,763 

ft 

65,19 

338,16 

0,7 

2.1991 

0,384845 

7 

27,332 

59.44R8 

7 

52,465 

219,040 

ft 

2,749 

0,6013 

% 

34,16 

92,886 

% 

65,58 

342,25 

0,8 

2,5133 

0,502655 

8 

27,646 

60,8212 

8 

52,779 

221,671 

0,9 

2,8274 

0,636173 

9 

27,960 

62,2114 

9 

53,093 

224,318 

1 

Vs 

3,142 
3,534 

0,7854 
0,9940 

11 

Vs 

34,56 
34,95 

95,033 
97,205 

21 

65,97 
66,37 

346.36 

350,50 

1,0 

3,1416 

0.78540 

9,0 

28,274 

63,6173 

17,0 

53,407 

226,980 

14 

3,927 

1,2272 

14    35,34 

99,402 

14 

66,76 

354,66 

1 

3,4558 

0,95033 

1 

28,588 

65,03-8 

1 

53,721 

229,658 

% 

4,320 

1,4849 

% 

35,74 

101,62, 

4s 

67,15 

358,84 

2 

3,7699 

1,13097 

2 

28,903 

66.4761 

2 

54,035 

232,352 

V2 

4,712 

1,7671 

V2 

36,13 

103,87 

V2 

67,54 

363,05 

3 

4.0841 

1.H2732 

3 

29,217 

67,9291 

3 

54,35(1 

235,062 

% 

5,105 

2,0739 

% 

36,52 

106,14 

% 

67,94 

367,28 

4 

4,3982 

1,53938 

4 

29,531 

69.3978 

4 

54,664 

237,787 

94 

5,498 

2,4053 

% 

36,91 

108,43 

% 

68,33 

371,54 

5 

4,7124 

1,76715 

5 

29,845 

70,8822 

5 

54,978 

240,528 

% 

5,890 

2,7612 

ft 

37,31 

110,75 

% 

68,72 

375,83 

6 
7 
8 
9 

5,0265 
5,3407 
5,6549 
5,9690 

2,01062 
2,26980 
2,54469 
2,83529 

6 
7 
8 
9 

30,159 
30,473 
30,788 
31,102 

72,3823 
73,8981 
75.4296 
76,9769 

6 
7 
8 
9 

55,292 
55,606 
55,920 
56,235 

243,285 
246,057 
248,846 
251,649 

2 

Vs 

6,283 
6,676 
7,069 
7,461 

3,1416 
3,5466 
3,9761 
4,4301 

12 

Vs 
14 

37,70 
38,09 
38,48 
38,88 

113,10 
115,47 
117,86 
120,28 

22 

Vs 

69,12 
69,51 
69,90 
70,29 

380,13 
384,46 
388,82 
393,20 

2,0 

2 
3 

6,2832 
6,5973 
6,9115 
7,2257 

3,14159 
346361 
3,80133 
4,15476 

10,0 
1 
2 
3 

31,416 

31.730 
32,044 

32,358 

78,5398 
80,1185 
81,7128 

83,3229 

18,0 
1 
2 
3 

56,549 
56.863 
57,177 
57,491 

254,469 
257,304 
260,155 
263,022 

V2 

7,854 
8,247 
8,639 
9,032 

4,9087 
5,4119 
5,9396 
6,4918 

V2 

39,27 
39,66 
40,06 
40,45 

122,72 
125,19 
127,68 
130,19 

V2 

70,69 
71,08 
71,47 
71,86 

397,61 
402,04 
406,49 
410,97 

4 

5 
6 
7 
8 
9 

7,5398 
7,8540 
8,1681 
8,4823 
8,7965 
9,1106 

4,52389 
4,90874 
5  30929 
5,72555 
6,15752 
6,60520 

4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 

32.673 
32,987 
33,301 
33,615 
33,929 
34,243 

84,9487 
86,5901 
88,2473 
89,9202 
91,6088 
93,3132 

4 
5 
6 

7 
8 
9 

57,805 
58,119 
58,434 
58,748 
59,062 
59,376 

265,904 
268,803 
271,716 
274.646 
277,591 
280,552 

3 

Vs 
>4 
% 

V2 

9,425 
9,817 
10,210 
10,603 
10,996 
11,388 

7,0686 
7,6699 
8,2958 
8,9462 
9,6211 
10,321 

13 

V2 

40,84 
41,23 
41,63 
42,02 

42,41 
42,80 

132,73 
135,30 
137,89 
140,50 
143,14 
145,80 

23 

Vs 

JA 

V2 

72,26 
72,65 
73,04 
73,43 
73,83 
74,22 

415,48 
420,00 
424,56 
429,13 
433,74 
438,36 

3,0 

9,4248 
9,7389 

7,06858 
7,54768 

11,0 
1 

34,558 
i4,872 

95,0332 
96,7689 

19,0 
1 

59,690 
60,004 

283,529 
286,521 

ft 

11,781 
12,174 

11,045 
11,793 

ft 

43,20 
43,59 

148,49 
151,20 

2 

74.61 
75,01 

443,01 
447,69 

2 

10,053 

8,04248 

2 

35,186 

98,5203 

2 

60319 

289,529 

4 

12,57 

12,566 

14 

43,98 

153,94 

24 

75,40 

452,39 

3 

10,367 

8  55299 

3 

35,500 

100,287 

3 

60,633 

292,553 

Va 

12,96 

13,364 

Vs 

44,37 

156,70 

Vs 

75,79 

457,11 

4 

10,681 

9,07920 

4 

35.814 

102,070 

4 

60,947 

295,592 

JA 

13,35 

14,186 

14 

44,77 

159,48 

76,18 

461,86 

5 
6 

7 

10,996 
11,310 
11,624 

9,62113 
10,1788 
10.7521 

5 
6 

7 

36,128 
36.442 
36,757 

103,869 
105,683 
107,513 

I 

7 

61,261 
61,575 
61,889 

298.648 
301,719 
304,805 

V2 

13,74 
14,14 
14,53 

15,033 
15,904 
16,800 

V2 

ft 

45,16 
45,55 
45,95 

162,30 
165,13 
167,99 

V2 

76,58 
76,97 
77,36 

466,64 
471,44 
476,26 

Q 

9 

11,938 
12,252 

11.3411 
11,9459 

8 
9 

37,071 
37,385 

109,359 
111,220 

8 
9 

62,204 
62,518 

307,907 
311,026 

ft 

14,92 
15,32 

17,721 
18,665 

46,34 
46,73 

170,87 
173,78 

% 

77,75 
78,15 

481,11 
485,98 

4,0 

12,566 

12,5664 

12,0 

37,699 

113,097 

20,0 

62,832 

314,159 

5 

15,71 

19,635 

15 

47,12 

176,71 

25 

78,54 

490,87 

1 

12,881 

13,2025 

1 

38,013 

114,990 

1 

63,146 

317,309 

Vs 

16,10 

20,629 

Va 

47,52 

179,67 

Vs 

78,93 

495,79 

2 

13,195 

13,8544 

2 

38,327 

116,899 

2 

63,460 

320,474 

JA 

16,49 

21,648 

V4 

47,91 

182,65 

14 

79.33 

500,74 

3 

13,509 

14,5220 

3 

5H,(i42 

118,823 

3 

63,774 

323,655 

% 

16,89 

22,691 

Sfa 

48,30 

185,66 

79,72 

505,71 

4  13,823 

15,2053 

4 

38,1)56 

120,763 

4 

64,088 

326,851 

V2 

17,28 

23758 

V2 

48,69 

188,69 

V2 

80,11 

51.0,71 

5!  14  137 

159043 

5 

39,270 

122,718 

5 

64,403 

330,0n4 

%  17,67 

24,850 

49,09 

191,75 

80,50 

515,72 

6  14,451 

16,6190 

6 

39,584 

124,690 

6 

64,717 

333  292 

%'  18,06 

25,967 

ft 

49,48 

194,83 

ft 

80,90 

520,77 

7  14,765 

17,3494 

7 

39,898 

126,677 

7 

65,031 

336,535 

% 

18,46 

27,109 

% 

49,87 

197,93 

% 

81,29 

525,84 

8 

15,080 

18,0956 

8 

40,212 

128,680 

8 

65  345 

339,795 

9 

15,394 

18,8574 

9 

40,527 

130,698 

9 

65,659 

343,070 

6 

18,85 

28,274 

16 

50,27 

201,06 

26 

81,68 

530,93 

Vs  19,24 

29,465 

Vs 

50,66 

204,22 

Vs 

82,07 

536,05 

5,.) 

15,708 

19,6350 

13,0 

40,841 

132,732 

21,0 

65,973 

346,361 

JA  19,63 

30,680 

ft 

51,05 

207,39 

14 

82,47 

541,19 

1 

16,022 

20,4282 

1 

41,155 

134,782 

1 

66,288 

349,667 

%  20,03 

31,919 

% 

51,44 

210,60 

% 

82,86 

546,35 

2 

16,336 

21,2372 

2 

41,469 

136,848 

2 

66,602 

352,989 

V2  20,42 

33,183 

V2 

51,84 

213,82 

V2 

83,25 

551,55 

3 

16,650 

22,0618 

3 

41,783 

138,929 

3 

66,916 

356.327 

%  20,81 

34,472 

% 

52,23 

217,08 

% 

83,64 

556,76 

^ 

16,965 

22,9022 

4 

42,097 

141,026 

4 

67,230 

359,681 

% 

21,21 

35,7*5 

% 

52,62 

220,35 

H/4 

84,04 

662,00 

5 

17,279 

23,7583 

5 

42,412 

143,139 

5 

67,544 

363,050 

% 

21,60 

37,122 

% 

53,01 

223,65 

% 

84,43 

567,27 

6 
7 
8 
9 

17,593 
17,907 
18,221 
18,535 

24,6301 
25,5176 
26.4208 
27,3397 

6 
7 
8 
9 

42,726 
43,040 
43,354 
43,668 

145,267 
147.411 
149,571 
151,747 

6 

7 
8 
9 

67  858 
68,173 
68,487 
68,801 

366,435 
369.836 
373,253 
376,685 

7 

Vs 

% 

21,99 

22,38 
22,78 
23,17 

38,485 
39,871 
41,282 
42,718 

17 

Vs 

% 

53,41 
53,80 
54,19 
54,59 

226,98 
230,33 
233,71 
237,10 

"Vs 

84,82 
85,22 
85,61 
86,  (JO 

572,56 

577,87 
583,21 
588,57 

6,0 
1 
2 
3 

18,850 
19,164 
19,478 
19,792 

28,2743 
29,2247 
30,1907 
31,1725 

14,0 
1 
2 
3 

43,982 
44,296 
44,611 

44,5)25 

153,938 
156,145 
158,368 
160606 

22,0 
1 
2 
3 

69,115 
69,429 
69,743 
70,058 

380,133 
383,596 
387,076 
390,571 

V2 
% 

23,56 
23,95 
24,35 
24,74 

44,179 
45,664 
47,173 
48,707 

V2 

54,98 
55,37 
55,76 
56,16 

240,53 
243,98 
247.45 
250,95 

V2 

86,39 
86,79 
87,18 
87,57 

593,96 
599,37 
604,81 
610,27 

4 
5 

C 
7 
8 
9 

20,106 
20,420 
20,735 
21,049 
21,363 
21,677 

32,1699 
33,1831 
34,2119 
35,2565 
36,3168 
37,3928 

4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 

45,239 
45,553 
45,867 
46,181 
46,45)6 
46,810 

162,860 
165,130 
167,415 
169,717 
172,034 
174,366 

4 
5 
6 

7 
8 
9 

70,372 
70,686 
71,000 
71,314 
71,628 
71,942 

394,081 
397,608 
401,150 
404,708 
408,281 
411,871 

8 

Vs 

V4 

% 

V2 

«te 

25,13 
25,53 
25,92 
26,31 
26,70 
27,10 

50,265 
51,849 
53,456 
55,088 
56,745 
58,426 

18 

Va 

14 

V2 

56,55 
56,94 
57,33 
57,73 
58,12 
58,51 

254,47 
258,02 
261,59 
265,18 
268,80 
272.45 

28 

Vs 

87,96 
88,36 
88,75 
89,14 
89,54 
89,93 

615,75 
621.26 
626,80 
632,36 
637,94 
643,55 

?,< 

1 

21,991 
22,305 

38.4845 
39,5919 

15,0 
1 

47.124 

47,438 

176,715 
179,079 

23,0 

1 

72,257 
72,571 

415,476 
419,096 

% 

27,49 
27,88 

60,132 
61,862 

ft 

58.90 
59,30 

276.12 
279,81 

2 

90,32 
90,71 

649,18 
654,84 

2 

22,619 

40,7150 

2 

47,752 

181,458 

2 

72,885  422,733 

9 

28,27 

63,617 

19 

59,69 

283,53 

29 

91,11 

660,52 

3 

22,934 

41.S539 

3 

48,066 

183,854 

3 

73,199  426,385 

Vs 

28,67  65,397 

Vs 

60,08 

287,27 

Vs 

91,50 

666,23 

4 

23,248 

43,0084 

4 

48.381 

186,265 

4 

73,513,430,053 

14 

29,06  67,201 

JA 

60,48  291,04 

14 

91,89 

671,96 

5 

23,562 

44,1786 

5 

48,695 

188,692 

5 

73,827  433,736 

% 

29,45  69,029 

% 

60,87  294,83 

ft 

92,28 

677,71 

6 

23,876 

45.3646 

6 

49,009 

191,134 

6 

74,142,437,435 

V2 

29,85  70,882 

V2 

61,26 

298,65 

V2 

92,68 

683,49 

7 

24,190 

46,5663 

7 

49,323 

193,593 

7 

74,456:441,150 

% 

30.24  72,760 

% 

61,65 

302,49 

Ufa 

93,07 

689.30 

8 

24,504 

47,7836 

8 

49.637 

196,067 

8 

74,770'444,881 

% 

30,63  74,662 

% 

62,05 

306,35 

ft 

93,46 

695.13 

9  24,819 

49,0167 

9  4').951 

198,557 

9  75,084  448,627 

1/8 

31,02  76,589 

ft 

62,44  310,24 

7/8 

93.86 

700.98 

—153— 


TABLE  No.  72. 

Diameters  and  Circumferences  of  Circles,  and  the  Contents 
in  Gallons  at  One  Foot  in  Depth. 


DIAMETER. 

ClRCUM. 

Area 
in    sq. 
feet. 

Gallons. 
IFt. 
Depth. 

DIAMETER. 

ClRCUM. 

Area 
in  feet. 

Gallons. 
1  Ft. 
Depth. 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft. 

In. 

4 

12 

6% 

12.56 

93.97 

13 

6 

42 

4% 

143.13 

1070.45 

4 

1 

12 

9% 

13.09 

97.93 

13 

9 

43 

148.48 

1108.06 

4 

2 

13 

1 

13.63 

101.97 

4 

3 

13 

4K 

14.18 

103.03 

14 

43 

11% 

153.93 

1151.21 

4 

4 

13 

7/4 

14.74 

110.29 

14 

3 

44 

9K 

159.48 

1192.69 

4 

5 

13 

IOK 

15.32 

114.57 

14 

6 

45 

6% 

165.13 

1234.91 

4 

6 

14 

1% 

15.90 

118.93 

14 

9 

46 

4 

170.87 

1277.86 

4 

7 

14 

4% 

16.49 

123.38 

4 

8 

14 

7% 

17.10 

127.91 

15 

47 

IK 

176.71 

1321.54 

4 

9 

14 

11 

17.72 

132.52 

15 

3 

47 

10% 

182.65 

1365.96 

4 

10 

15 

2K 

18.34 

137.21 

15 

6 

48 

8/4 

188.69 

1407.51 

4 

11 

15 

18.98 

142.05 

15 

9 

49 

5% 

194.82 

1457.00 

5 

15 

8K 

19.63 

146.83 

16 

50 

3K 

201.06 

1503.62 

5 

1 

15 

11% 

20.29 

151.77 

16 

3 

51 

OK 

207.39 

1550.97 

5 

2 

16 

2% 

20.96 

156.78 

16 

6 

51 

10 

213.82 

1599.06 

5 

3 

16 

5% 

21.64 

161.88 

16 

9 

52 

7^8 

220.35 

1647.89 

5 

4 

16 

9 

22.34 

167.06 

5 

5 

17 

OK 

23.04 

172.33 

17 

53 

4% 

226.98 

1697.45 

5 

6 

17 

3% 

23.75 

177.67 

17 

3 

54 

2K 

233.70 

1747.74 

5 

7 

17 

6% 

24.48 

183.09 

17 

6 

54 

11% 

240.52 

1798.76 

5 

8 

17 

9% 

25.21 

188.60 

17 

9 

55 

9K 

247.45 

1850.53 

5 

9 

18 

0% 

25.96 

194.19 

5 

10 

18 

3% 

26.72 

199.86 

18 

56 

6K 

254.46 

1903.02 

5 

11 

18 

7K 

27.49 

205.61 

18 

3 

57 

4 

261.58 

1956.25 

18 

6 

58 

1% 

268.80 

2010.21 

6 

18 

IOK 

28.27 

211.44 

18 

9 

58 

10% 

276.1J 

2064.91 

6 

3 

19 

7K 

30.67 

229.43 

V 

6 

6 

20 

4% 

33.18 

248.15 

19 

59 

8/4 

283.52 

2120.34 

6 

9 

21 

2% 

35.78 

267.61 

19 

3 

60 

5% 

291.03 

2176.51 

19 

6 

61 

3K 

298.64 

2233.29 

7 

21 

11% 

38.48 

287.80 

19 

9 

62 

OK 

306.35 

2291.04 

7 

3 

22 

Ql/ 
*^/4 

41.23 

308.72 

7 

6 

23 

6% 

44.17 

330.38 

20 

62 

9% 

314.16 

2349.41 

7 

9 

24 

4K 

47.17 

352.76 

20 

3 

63 

7% 

322.06 

2408.51 

20 

6 

64 

4% 

330.06 

2468.35 

8 

25 

IK 

50.26 

375.90 

20 

9 

65 

2/4 

338.16 

2528.92 

8 

3 

25 

11 

53.45 

399.76 

8 

6 

26 

8% 

56.74 

424.36 

21 

65 

11% 

346.36 

2590.22 

8 

9 

27 

5% 

60.13 

449.21 

21 

3 

66 

9 

354.65 

2652.25 

21 

6 

67 

6K 

363.05 

2715.04 

9 

28 

3/4 

63.61 

475.75 

21 

9 

68 

3% 

371.54 

2778.54 

9 

3 

29 

0% 

67.20 

502.55 

9 

6 

29 

IOK 

70.88 

530.08 

22 

69 

1% 

380.13 

2842.79 

9 

9 

30 

7K 

74.66 

558.35 

22 

3 

69 

1Q3/ 

388.82 

2907.76 

22 

6 

70 

o/4 

397.60 

2973.48 

10 

31 

5 

78.54 

587.35 

22 

9 

71 

5% 

406.49 

3039.92 

10 

3 

32 

2% 

82.51 

617.08 

10 

6 

32 

11% 

86.59 

647.55 

23 

72 

3 

415.47 

3107.10 

10 

9 

33 

90.76 

678.27 

23 

3 

73 

OK 

424.55 

3175.01 

23 

6 

73 

9% 

433.73 

3243.65 

11 

34 

6% 

95.03 

710.69 

23 

9 

74 

7/4 

443.01 

3313.04 

11 

3 

35 

4K 

99.40 

743.36 

11 

6 

36 

IK 

103.86 

776.77 

24 

75 

4% 

452.39 

3383.15 

11 

9 

36 

10% 

108.43 

810.91 

24 

3 

76 

2K 

461.86 

3454.00 

24 

6 

76 

471.43 

3525.59 

12 

37 

8% 

113.09 

848.18 

24 

9 

77 

9/8 

481.10 

3597.90 

12 

3 

38 

5% 

117.85 

881.39 

12 

6 

39 

122.71 

917.73 

25 

78 

6% 

490.87 

3670.95 

12 

9 

40 

0% 

127.67 

954.81 

25 

3 

79 

3/8 

500.74 

3744.74 

25 

6 

80 

1/4 

510.70 

3819.26 

13 

40 

10 

132.73 

992.62 

25 

9 

80 

10% 

520.76 

3894.52 

13 

3 

41 

7K 

137.88 

1031-17 

i 

*—                     _. 

—154— 


TABLE  NO.   73. 

Wrought  Iron,  Steel,  Copper  and  Brass  Plates. 

Birmingham  Gauge. 


No.  of 
Gauge. 

Thickness,  Inches. 

Weight  Per  Square  Foot,  Lbs. 

Iron. 

Steel. 

Copper. 

Brass. 

0000 
000 
00 
0 

1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
35 
36 

0.454  or  Vie  full--- 

18.2167 
17.0531 
15.2475 
13.6425 
12.0375 
11.3955 
10.3924 
9.5497 
8.8275 
8.1454 
7.2225 
6.6206 
5.9385 
5.3767 
4.8150 
4.3736 
3.8119 
3.3304 
2.8890 
2.6081 
2.3272 
1.9661 
1.6852 
1.4044 
1.2840 
1.1235 
1.0031 
0.8827 
0.8025 
0.7222 
0.6420 
0.5617 
0.5216 
0.4815 
0.4012 
0.3611 
0.3210 
0.2809 
0.2006 
0.1605 

18.4596 
17.2805 
15.4508 
13.8244 
12.1980 
11.5474 
10.5309 
9.6771 
8.9452 
8.2540 
7.3188 
6.7089 
6.0177 
5.4484 
4.8792 
4.4319 
3.8627 
3.3748 
2.9275 
2.6429 
2.3583 
1.9923 
1.7077 
1.4231 
1.3011 
1.1385 
1.0165 
0.8945 
0.8132 
0.7319 
0.6506 
0.5692 
0.5286 
0.4879 
0.4066 
0.3659 
0.3253 
0.2846 
0.2033 
0.1626 

20.5662 
19.2525 
17.2140 
15.4020 
13.5900 
12.8652 
11.7327 
10.7814 
9.9660 
9.1959 
8.1540 
7.4745 
6.7044 
6.0702 
5.4360 
4.9377 
4.3035 
3.7599 
3.2616 
2.9445 
2.6274 
2.2197 
1.9026 
1.5855 
1.4496 
1.2684 
1.1325 
0.9966 
0.9060 
0.8154 
0.7248 
0.6342 
0.5889 
0.5436 
0.4530 
0.4077 
0.3624 
0.3171 
0.2265 
0.1812 

19.4312 
18.1900 
16.2640 
14.5520 
12.8400 
12.1552 
11.0852 
10.1864 
9.4160 
8.6884 
7.7040 
7.0620 
6.3344 
5.7352 
5.1360 
4.6652 
4.0660 
3.5524 
3.0816 
2.7820 
2.4824 
2.0972 
1.7976 
1.4980 
1.3696 
1.1984 
1.0700 
0.9416 
0.8560 
0.7704 
0.6848 
0.5992 
0.5564 
0.5136 
0.4280 
0.3852 
0.3424 
0.2996 
0.2140 
0.1712 

0.425     —  _     _     ___ 

0.38    or  3/s  full  

0  34    or  YS  full 

03- 

0.284   _ 

0.259  or  J/4  full 

0  238 

0.22     

0.203  or  J  3  full 

0.18    orVie  light  - 

0.165  or  Ve  light 

0.148  or  Vr  full 

0.134 

0.12    or  J  's  light-    - 

0.109 

0.095  or  Vio  light 

0  083  _ 

0.072   

0.065       -_       -  -     -_     _ 

0.058 

0.049  or  Vao  light-- 

0  042 

0.035   _ 

0  032 

0.028   -     —     — 

0  025  or  Y«> 

0  022 

0  02     or  Y50 

0.018 

0.016   - 

0.014  _        _     _ 

0.013   _     - 

0.012   _ 

0.01     or  YIOO 

0.009     

0.008   _     _.-      

0.007 

0.005  or  V'zoo 

0.004  or  Vzso  

1 
i 

1.00  inch  thick- 

41.5696 

42.1236 

46.9308 

44.3408 

— 155- 


TABLE  No.  74, 
Weight  of  Square  and  Round  Iron. 


SIDE  OR 

DlAM. 

Weight, 
Square. 

Weight, 
Round. 

SIDE  OR 

DlAAt. 

Weight, 
Square. 

Weight, 
Round. 

SIDE  OR 

DlAM. 

Weight. 
Square. 

Weight. 
Round. 

A 

.013 

.01 

2 

13.52 

10.616 

5 

84.48 

66.35 

% 

.053 

.041 

H 

15.263 

11.988 

H 

93.168 

73.172 

A 

.118 

.093 

% 

17.112 

13.44 

£ 

102.24 

80.301 

k 

.211 

.165 

% 

19.066 

14.975 

H 

111.756 

87.776 

% 

.475 

.373 

H 

21.12 

16.588 

£ 

.845 

.663 

X 

23.292 

18.293 

6 

121.664 

95.552 

S/8 

1.32 

1.043 

% 

25.56 

20.076 

M 

132.04 

103.  70  i 

% 

1.901 

1.493 

H 

27.939 

21.944 

yz 

142.816 

112.16 

y* 

2.588 

2.032 

% 

154.012 

120.96 

3 

30.416 

23.888 

i 

3.38 

2.654 

Y± 

35.704 

28.04 

7 

165.632 

130.048 

X 

4.278 

3.359 

Yz 

41.408 

32.515 

>4 

177.672 

139.544 

X 

5.28 

4.147 

% 

47.534 

37.332 

8 

190.136 

149.328 

% 

6.39 

5.019 

54.084 

42.464 

X 

203.024 

159.456 

% 

7.604 

5.972 

4 

% 

8.926 

7.01 

X 

61.055 

47.952 

8 

216.336 

169.856 

% 

10352 

8.128 

X 

68.448 

53.76 

% 

11.883 

9.333 

% 

76.264 

59.9 

9 

273.792 

215.04 

TABLE  No.  75. 
Vulgar  Fractions  of  a  Lineal  Inch  in  Decimal  Fractions. 


ADVANCING  BY  THIRTY-SECONDS. 

ADVANCING  BY  ODD  SIXTY-FOURTHS. 

Thirty- 
seconds. 

Fractions. 

°u     C 

Thirty- 
seconds. 

Fractions. 

VI    JS 

U 

,  r 

x  *- 
<s> 

VI    .C 

11 

0  1 

M 

i/5 

—    .C 

1  -5 

1 

~3  2* 

0.03125 

17 

H 

0.53125 

1 

0.015625 

33 

0.515625 

2 

TV 

0.0625 

18 

fV 

0.5625 

3 

0.04687 

35 

0.546875 

3 

0.09375 

19 

0.59375 

5 

0.078125 

37 

0.578125 

4 

% 

0.125 

20 

I 

0.625 

7 

0.109375 

39 

0.609375 

5 

-h 

0.15625 

21 

0.65625 

9       0.140625 

41 

0.640625 

6 

0.1875 

22 

H 

0.6875 

11 

0.171875 

43 

0.671875 

7 

•fa 

0.21875 

23 

2  3 
"32" 

0.71875 

13 

0  203125 

45 

0.703125 

8 

I 

0.25 

24 

f 

0.75 

15 

0.234375 

47 

0.734375 

9 

0.28125 

25 

2  5 

0.78125 

17 

0.265625 

49 

0.765625 

10 

T5S 

0.3125 

26 

|| 

0.8125 

19 

0.296875 

51 

0.796875 

11 

ii 

0.34375 

27 

0.84375 

21 

0.328125 

53 

0.828125 

12 

1 

0.375 

28 

£ 

0.875 

23 

0.359375 

55 

0.859375 

13 

•st 

0.40625 

29 

II 

0.90625 

25 

0.390625 

57 

0.890625 

14 

7 
TB" 

0.4375 

30 

it 

0.9375 

27 

C.421875 

59 

0.921875 

15 

15 

0.46875 

31 

ti 

0.96875 

29 

0.453125 

61 

0.953125 

16 

» 

0.5 

32 

i 

1.000 

31 

0.484375 

63 

0.984375 

—156— 


TABLE  No.  :o. 

• 

Lineal  Inches  in  Decimal  Fractions  of  a  Lineal  Foot. 


Lineal 
Inches. 

Lineal  Foot. 

Lineal 
Inches. 

Lineal  Foot. 

Lineal 
Inches. 

Lineal  Foot. 

ft 

0.001302083 

u 

0.15625 

6* 

0.5416 

A 

0.00260416 

2 

0.1666 

6! 

0.5625 

iff 

0.0052083 

2| 

0.177083 

7 

0.5833 

¥ 

0.010416 

2  1 

0.1875 

y  i 

0.60416 

3 
Iff 

0.015625 

2   8 

0.197916 

7* 

0.625 

1 

0.02083 

2J 

0.2083 

7| 

0.64583 

T\ 

0.0260416 

9  5 

«   8 

0.21875 

8 

0.66667 

| 

0.03125 

2  f 

0.22916 

*1- 

0.6875 

7 
Tff 

0.0364583 

21 

0.239583 

8J 

0.7083 

i 

0.0416 

3 

0.25 

8| 

0.72916 

T9tr 

0.046875 

31 

0.27083 

9 

0.75 

| 

0.052083 

3  j 

0.2916 

91- 

0.77083 

1  1 
It 

0.0572916 

3| 

0.3125 

Q    I 

0.7916 

3 

0.0625 

4 

0.33333 

a  3 

y  4 

0.8125 

Tff 

0.0677083 

41 

0.35416 

10 

0.83333 

i 

0.072916 

4i 

0.375 

101- 

0.85416 

iis 

0.078125 

4| 

0.39583 

10  i 

0.875 

1 

0.0833 

5 

0.4166 

10  1 

0.89583 

1-t 

0.09375 

•n 

0.4375 

11 

0.9166 

H 
if 

0.10416 
0.114583 

5* 

0.4583 
0.47916 

111 

Ui 

0.9375 
0.9583 

1* 

0.125 

6 

0.5 

11! 

0.97916 

j; 

0.135416 
0.14583 

«i 

0.52083 

12 

1.000 

4 

1\\e  first  cost  of  a  boiler  is  a  fixed  quantity.  The  cost  of  operation  is  one 
continuing  during  the  life  of  the  boiler.  Given  the  relative  cost  of  tubular 
and  water-tube  boilers,  and  the  cost  of  fuel,  it  is  a  simple  arithmetical  cajcu- 
lation  to  determine  what  percentage  of  economy  there  must  be  in  water-tube 
boilers  in  order  to  earn  back  their  extra  first  cost.  Of  course  no  one  who 
understands  the  subject,  now  doubts  that  there  is  some  advantage  in  water- 
tube  boilers  in  point  of  economy  of  operation  and  repairs.  Take  this  per- 
centage of  economy  at  the  minimum — say  only  10% — and  see  how  short  a 
time  it  takes  to  amount  to  more  than  the  cost  of  the  boiler.  It  will  surprise 
you. 


—157— 


TABLE  No.  77. 
Square  Inches  in  Decimal  Fractions  of  a  Square  Foot. 


Square 
Inches. 

Square 
Foot. 

Square 
Inches. 

Square 
Foot. 

Square 
Inches. 

Square 
Foot. 

Square 
Inches. 

Square 
Hoot. 

0.10 

0.0006944 

24.0 

0.16666 

65.0 

0.45138 

105.0 

0.72916 

0.15 

0.0010416 

25.0 

0.17361 

66.0 

0.45833 

106.0 

0.73611 

0.20 

0.001388 

26.0 

0.18055 

67.0 

0.46527 

107.0 

0.74305 

0.25 

0.0017361 

27.0 

0.18750 

68.0 

0.47222 

108.0 

0.75000 

0.30 

0.002083 

28.0 

0.19444 

69.0 

0.47916 

109.0 

0.75694 

0.35 

0.0024305 

29.0 

0.20138 

70.0 

0.48611 

110.0 

0.76388 

0.40 

0.002777 

30.0 

0.20833 

71.0 

0.49305 

111.0 

0.77083 

0.45 

0.00311249 

31.0 

C.21527 

72.0 

0.50000 

112.0 

0.77777 

0.50 

0.003472 

32.0 

0.22222 

73.0 

0.50694 

113.0 

0.78472 

0.55 

0.0038194 

33.0 

0.22916 

74.0 

0.51388 

114.0 

0.79166 

0.60 

0.004166 

34.0 

0.23611 

75.0 

0.52083 

115.0 

0.79861 

0.65 

0.0045138 

35.0 

0.24305 

76.0 

0.52777 

116.0 

0.80555 

0.70 

0.004861 

36.0 

0.25000 

77.0 

0.53472 

117.0 

0.81249 

0.75 

0.0052083 

37.0 

0.25694 

78.0 

0.54166 

118.0 

0.81944 

0.80 

0.005555 

38.0 

0.26388 

79.0 

0.54861 

119.0 

0.82638 

0.85 

0.0059027 

39.0 

0.27083 

80.0 

0.55555 

120.0 

0.83333 

0.90 

0.006250 

40.0 

0.27777 

81.0 

0.56249 

121.0 

0.84027 

0.95 

0.0065972 

41.0 

0.28472 

82.0 

0.56944 

122.0 

0  54722 

1.0 

0.006944 

42.0 

0.29166 

83.0 

0.57638 

123.0 

0.85416 

2.0 

0.01388 

43.0 

0.29861 

84.0 

0.58333 

124.0 

0.86111 

3.0 

0.02083 

44.0 

0.30555 

85.0 

0.59027 

125.0 

0.86805 

4.0 

0.02777 

45.0 

0.31249 

86.0 

0.59722 

126.0 

0.87500 

5.0 

0.03472 

46.0 

0.31944 

87.0 

0.60416 

127.0 

0.88194 

6.0 

0.04166 

47.0 

0.32638 

88.0 

0.61111 

128.0 

0.88888 

7.0 

0.04861 

48.0 

0.33333 

89.0 

0.61805 

129.0 

0.89583 

8.0 

0.05555 

49.0 

0.34027 

90.0 

0.62500 

130.0 

0.90277 

9.0 

0.06250 

50.0 

034722 

91.0 

0.63194 

131.0 

0.90972 

10.0 

0.06944 

51.0 

0.35416 

92.0 

0.63888 

132.0 

0.91666 

11.0 

0.07638 

52.0 

0.36111 

93.0 

0.64583 

133.0 

0.92361 

12.0 

0.08333 

53,0 

0.36805 

94.0 

0.65277 

134.0 

0.93055 

13.0 

0.09027 

54.0 

0.37500 

95.0 

0.65972 

135.0 

0.93750 

14.0 

0.09722 

55.0 

0.38194 

96.0 

0.66666 

136.0 

0.94444 

15.0 

0.10416 

56.0  i   0.38888 

97.0 

0.67361 

137.0 

0.95138 

16.0 

0.11111 

57.0 

0.39583 

98.0 

0.68055 

138.0 

0.95833 

17.0 

0.11805 

58.0 

0.40277 

99.0 

0.68750 

139.0 

0.96527 

18.0 

0.12500 

59.0 

0.40972 

100.0 

0.69444 

140.0 

0.97222 

19.0 

0.13194 

60.0 

0.41666 

101.0 

0.70138 

141.0 

0.97916 

20.0 

0.13S88 

61.0 

0.42361 

102.0 

0.70833 

142.0 

0.98611 

21.0 

0.14583 

62.0 

0.43055 

103.0 

0.71527 

143.0 

0.99305 

22.0 

0.15277 

63.0 

0.43750 

104.0 

0.72222 

144.0 

1  .0000 

23.0 

I  0.15972 

64.0 

0.44444 

—158— 


TABLE  No.  is. 
Decimal  Fractions  of  a  Square  Foot  in  Square  Inches. 


Square 
Foot. 

Square 
Inches. 

Square 
Foot. 

Square 
Inches. 

Square 
Foot. 

Square 
Inches. 

Square 
Foot. 

Square 
Inches. 

0.01 

1,44 

0.26 

37.4 

0.51 

73.4 

0.76 

109.4 

0.02 

2.88 

0.27 

38.9 

0.52 

74.9 

0.77 

110.9 

0.03 

4.32 

0.28 

40.3 

0.53 

76.3 

0.78 

112.3 

0.04 

5.76 

0.29 

41.8 

0.54 

77.8 

0.79 

113.8 

0.05 

7.20 

0.30 

43.2 

0.55 

79.2 

0.80 

115.2 

0.06 

8.64 

0.31 

44.6 

0.56 

80.6 

0.81 

116.6 

0.07 

10.1 

0.32 

46.1 

0.57 

82.1 

0.82 

118.1 

0.08 

11.5 

0.33 

47.5 

0.58 

83.5 

0.83 

119.5 

0.09 

13.0 

0.34 

49.0 

0.59 

85.0 

0.84 

121.0 

0.10 

14.4 

0.35 

50.4 

0.60 

86.4 

0.85 

122.4 

0.11 

15.8 

0.36 

51.8 

0.61 

87.8 

0.86 

123.8 

0.12 

17.3 

0.37 

53.3 

0.62 

89.3 

0.87 

125.3 

0.13 

18.7 

0.38 

54.7 

0.63 

90.7 

0.88 

126.7 

0.14 

20.2 

0.39 

56.2 

0.64 

92.2 

0.89 

128.2 

0.15 

21.6 

0.40 

57.6 

0.65 

93.6 

0.90 

129.6 

0.16 

23.0 

0.41 

58.0 

0.66 

95.0 

0.91 

131.0 

0.17 

24.5 

0.42 

60.5 

0.67 

96.5 

0.92 

132.5 

0.18 

25.9 

0.43 

61.9 

0.68 

97.9 

0.93 

133.9 

0.19 

27.4 

0.44 

63.4 

0.69 

99.4 

0.94 

135.4 

0.20 

28.8 

0.45 

64.8 

0.70 

100.8 

0.95 

136.8 

0.21 

30.2 

0.46 

66.2 

0.71 

102.2 

0.96 

138.2 

0.22 

31.7 

0.47 

67.7 

0.72 

103.7 

0.97 

139.7 

0.23 

33.1 

0.48 

69.1 

0.73 

105.1 

0.98 

141.1 

0.24 

34.6 

0.49 

70.6 

0.74 

106.6 

0.99 

142.6 

0.25 

36.0 

0.50 

72.0 

0.75 

108.0 

1.00 

144.0 

How  many  large  modern  boiler  plants  are  now  constructed  with  old 
style  flue  and  tubular  boilers — boilers  in  which  circulation  is  in  spite  of,  and 
not  because  of,  their  design  and  construction  ?  Among  the  big  new  installa- 
tions there  are  twenty  water-tube  plants  now  to  every  one  of  the  old  style. 
Yet  many  small  boiler  users  still  fail  to  grasp  the  fact  that  the  economy  of 
boilers  is  "a  condition  "  and  not  "a  theory." 


—159- 


TABLE  No.  "9. 
French  Measures  of  Length  with  U.  S.  Equivalents. 


Metres. 

U.  S.  Equivalents. 

1  millimetre         

0.001 

0  03937  inch 

10  millimetres 

1  centimetre 

0  01 

0  3937    inch 

10  centimetres 

1  decimetre 

0  1 

3  93704  inches 

10  decimetres  ^1 

100  centimetres  -  > 

1  METRE 

1  0 

("39.3704  inches. 

1000  millimetres             J 

\   3.2809  feet. 

10  metres 

1  dpc3  metre 

10  0 

32  8087  feet 

10  decametres        --  -- 

1  hectometre 

100  0 

328  0869  feet 

10  hectometres  - 

1  KILOMETRE 

1000  0 

3280  869  feet 

10  kilometres    - 

I  mvriametre 

10000.0 

6.21377  miles. 

TABLE  No.  so. 
French  Measures  of  Surface  with  U.  S.  Equivalents. 


Square   Metres. 

U.  S.  Equivalents. 

1  ^q   millimetre 

0.000001 

0.00155  sq   inches 

100  sq.  millimetres  - 

1  sq.  centimeter          

0.0001 

0.155  sq   inches 

100  SQ.  centimetres    - 

1  sq.  decimetre      

0.01 

15.5003  sq   inches. 

100  sq.  decimetres  \ 

1  sq    METRE 

1  0 

no.  7641  sq.  feet. 

10000  sq.  centimetres--/ 
100  sq.  metres  - 

1  sq    decametre 

100.0 

1  1.1960  sq.  yards. 
f  1076.41  sq.  feet. 

100  sq    decametres  - 

1  sq.  hectometre  

10,000.0 

\119.601  sq.  yards, 
f  11960.11  sq.  yards. 

100  sq    hectometres 

1  sq   kilometre 

1  000  000.0 

\  2.4711  acres, 
f  1196014  sq.  yards. 

100  sn.  kilometres.  . 

1  sn.  mvriametre 

]oo.ooo.ooo.r 

1  0.38611  sq.  miles. 
38.611  so.  miles. 

TABLE  No.  si. 


French  Measures  of  Weight  with  U.  S.  Avoirdupois 

Equivalents. 


Grammes. 

U.  S.  Equivalents. 

1  milligramme 

0.001 

0.0154  grains. 

10  milligrammes 

1  centigramme 

0.01 

0  1543  grains 

10  centigrammes 

I  decigramme 

0.1 

1  .5432  grains. 

10  decigrammes 

i  GRAMME-     - 

1.0 

15.4323  grains 

10  grammes 

1  decagramme  

10.0 

f  154.3235  grains. 

10  decagrammes 

L  hectagramme            _  __ 

100.0 

i  0.3527  ounces. 
I  1543.2349  grains. 

10  hectagrammes 

1  kilogramme 

1000.0 

\  3.5274  ounces. 
2  204(>  pounds. 

l  metric  quintal 

220.4621  pounds. 

10  quintals    -  -     --       1 

f  2204.6212  pounds. 

1000  kilogrammes  / 

1  millier  or  tonne-- 

( 0.9842  tons. 

-160— 


TABLE  No.  8^.. 
French  Measures  of  Volume  with  U.  S.  Equivalents. 


Cubic  Metres. 

U.  S  Equivalents. 

1  cu.  millimetre    

0.000000001 

0.000061  cu   inches. 

1000  cu   millimetres 

1  cu.  centimetre 

0  000001 

0  061025  cu   inches 

1000  cu    centimetres 

1  cu.  decimetre    -.  - 

0.001 

f  61.02524  cu.  inches. 

1000  cu   decimetres 

1  cu.  METRE 

1.0 

1  0.03531  56  cu.  feet. 
/  35.3156  cu.  feet. 

1000  cu.  metres         -     - 

1  cu.  decametre  - 

1000 

1  1.308  cu.  yards. 
1308.0  cu.  yards. 

TABLE  No.  83. 


French  Liquid  Measure  with  U.  S.  Equivalents. 


Litres. 

U.  S.  Equivalents. 

10  centilitres 

f  1  centilitre                \ 
\  10  cu.  centimetres    J  " 

1  decilitre 

0.01 
0  1 

/  0.61025  cu.  inches. 
\0.0845  gills, 
f  6.1025  cu.  inches. 

10  decilitres 

/I  LITRE              1 

1  0 

1  0.2114  pints, 
f  61.02524  cu.  inches. 

10  litres       ---        ---     - 

1  1  cu.  decimetre/ 
I  decalitre 

100 

10.2642  gallons. 
2  6418  gallons 

10  decalitres 

1  hectolitre 

1000 

26  418  gallons 

THE  FAMOUS  SCHICHAU  ENGINE. 

Now  owned  by  the  C.  C.  Washburn  Flouring  Mills  Co. 

Steam  supplied  by  Heine  Boilers. 


—161- 


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-164- 


Bowling  Green  Office  Building, 

NEW  YORK. 
Equipped  with  750  H.  P.  Heine  Safety  Boilers. 


LIST  OF  HEINE  BOILER  PLANTS. 


HOTELS,  OFFICES  AND  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

National  Guard  Armory,  St.  Louis : 1  Boiler,         40  H. P. 

Harmonic  Club,  St.  Louis .-. 1  15 

Shaw  Building,  St.  Louis 1  50 

Mitchell  Building,  St.  Louis 1  45 

Missouri  State  University,  Columbia,  Mo 2  120 

St.  Louis  Exposition,  St.  Louis 4  1000 

House  of  Refuge,  St.  Louis 2  110 

Montesano  Hotel,  St.  Louis 1  15 

Palace  Hotel,  San  Francisco,  Cal 4  260 

McVicker's  Theatre,  Chicago,  111 2  260 

Roe  Building,  St.  Louis  2  250 

Good  Samaritan  Hospital,  St.  Louis 1  20 

Lake  View  School  House,  Chicago,  111 2  75 

State  University,  Madison,  Wis 2  110 

Minneapolis  Industrial  Exposition,  Minneapolis,  Minn 4  1000 

Centropolis  Hotel,  Kansas  City 2  150 

Inter-State  Industrial  Exposition,  Chicago,  111 1  250 

University  of  Denver,  Denver,  Colo.,  first  order 1  90 

University  of  Denver,  Denver,  Colo.,  second  order 1  200 

Boston  Heating  Co.,  Boston,  Mass.,  first  order 10  1000 

Boston  Heating  Co.,  Boston,  Mass.,  second  order 2  200 

San  Jose  Insane  Asylum,  San  Jose,  Cal 2  220 

Cincinnati  Exposition,  Cincinnati,  Ohio 2  400 

Denver  Republican,  Denver,  Colo 1  80 

Cathedral  of  St.  John,  Denver,  Colo 1  80 

Railroad  Building,  Denver,  Colo 1  110 

Arkansas  State  Lunatic  Asylum,  Little  Rock,  Ark 2  150 

Western  Pennsylvania  Exposition,  Pittsburg,  Pa 2  500 

Houser  Building,  St.  Louis 2  240 

Hospital  for  the  Insane,  Fergus  Falls,  Minn  1  120 

Southern  Illinois  Penitentiary,  Chester,  111...... 2  600 

Insane  Asylum,  Agnew,  Cal 2  220 

Railroad  Building,  Denver,  Colo.,  second  order 1  110 

Court  House,  Evansville,  Ind '. 2  190 

Wm.  Kirkup  &  Son,  Cincinnati,  Ohio 2  220 

Pabst  Opera  House,  Milwaukee,  Wis 2  240 

Arapahoe  County  Jail,  Denver,  Colo 3  360 

C.  D.  McPhee,  Denver,  Colo  2  150 

Broadway  Theatre,  Denver,  Colo.,  first  order 2  240 

Boatmen's  Bank  Building,  St.  Louis 2  240 

Broadway  Theatre,  Denver,  Colo.,  second  order 1  120 

Samuel  Cupples  Real  Estate  Co.,  St.  Louis 2  740 

The  Neave  Building  Co.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio 2  240 

First  National  Bank,  Duluth,  Minn 2  80 

John  Shillito  Co.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  first  order 1  250 

John  Shillito  Co.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  second  order 2  400 

John  M.  Smyth,  Chicago,  111 2  500 

University  of  Michigan,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich 2  300 

Hospital  for  the  Insane,  Fergus  Falls,  Minn.,  second  order 1  120 

Palace  Hotel,  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  second  order 3  525 

Roval  Victoria  Hospital,  Montreal,  Can 2  160 

R.  "H.  Macy  &  Co. ,  New  York 3  600 

Henry  C.  Brown,  Palace  Hotel,  Denver,  Colo  4  520 

Jas.  G.  Fair  Building,  San  Francisco,  Cal 1 

Hospital  for  the  Insane,  Fergus  Falls,  Minn.,  third  order 1  120 

Jackson  County  Court  House,  Kansas  City 3  360 

Equitable  Building,  Des  Moines,  Iowa 2  300 

Freehold  Building,  Toronto,  Can 1  120 

Confederation  Building,  Toronto,  Can 2  200 

John  Doty  Engine  Co.,  Toronto,  Can 1  110 

Athletic  Club  Building,  Chicago,  111 2  300 

World's  Columbian  Exposition,  Chicago,  111 8  3000 

Windsor  Hotel,  Montreal,  Can 1  150 

Betz  Building,   Philadelphia,  Pa 3  500 

Mercantile  Club,  St.  Louis 2  300 

The  Johnson  Building,  Cincinnati,  Ohio  2  240 

The  First  National  Bank,  Pittsburg,  Pa 2  100 

Jackson  County  Court  House,  Kansas  City,  second  order 1  120 

Emma  Spreckels  Building,  San  Francisco,  Cal  2  150 

Mallinckrodt  Building,  St.  Louis 2  300 

—166— 


World's  Columbian  Exposition,  Chicago,  111.,  second  order 

Odd  Fellows'  Temple,  Cincinnati,  Ohio 

Occidental  Hotel,  San  Francisco,  Cal  .*... 

New  Planters'  House,  St.  Louis 

Young  Men's  Christian  Association  Building,  Chicago 

Gruenewald  Building,  New  Orleans 

Hospital  for  the  Insane,  Fergus  Falls,  Minn.,  fourth  order  

Pennsylvania  State  College,  State  College,  Pa 

Hotel  Majestic,  New  York  City 

Carnegie  Steel  Co.,  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  first  order 

Carnegie  Steel  Co.,  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  second  order 

Central  Park  Apartment  Building,  New  York  City 

California  Midwinter  International  Exposition,  San  Francisco  .. 

City  and  County  Building,  Salt  L^ke  City,  Utah 

Southern  Illinois  Penitentiary,  Chester,  111.,  second  order.. 

La  Banque  du  Peuple,  Montreal,  Can  

St.  Vincent's  Institute,  Normandy,  Mo 

Marquette  Building,  Chicago,  111 

Merchants'  Exchange,  St.  Louis 

Fergus  Falls  State  Hospital,  Fergus  Falls,  Minn.,  fifth  order.... 

City  of  Chicago  Electric  Light  Station,  Chicago,  111 

Bennett  &  Wright,  Parliament  Building,  Victoria,  B.  C 

New  Planters'  House,  St.  Louis,  second  order 

Equitable  Building,  Denver,  Colo 

Samuel  Cupples  Real  Estate  Co.,  St.  Louis,  second  order 

Jackson  Bros.  Building,  Pittsburg,  Pa 

Maine  State  College,  Orona,  Me 

Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y 

First  National  Bank  Building,  Chicago,  111 

North  Sub-district  School,  Pittsburg,  Pa 

University  of  Missouri,  Columbia,  Mo 

Winnebago  Building,  Chicago,  111 

Bowling  Green  Building,  New  York 

Central  Kentucky  Lunatic  Asylum,  Lakeland,  Ky 

Y.  M.  C.  A.  Building,  St.  Louis  

First  National  Bank  Building,  Pittsburg,  Pa 

Colorado  Telephone  Co.,  Denver,  Colo 

W.  U.  Telegraph  Co.  Building,  Chicago,  111 

Lindell  Real  Estate  Co.,  St.  Louis 

Fergus  Falls  State  Hospital,  Fergus  Falls,  Minn.,  sixth  order.. 

New  City  Hall,  St.  Louis 

Uihlein  Building,  Milwaukee,  Wis 

Windsor  Hotel,  New  York 

C.  S.  Movey  Mercantile  Co.,  Denver,  Colo 

Y.  M.  C.  A'.,  Philadelphia,  Pa 

Massillon  State  Hospital,  Massillon,  Ohio 

Davis  Building,  St.  Louis,  Mo 

Hotel  Chamberlain,  Old  Point  Comfort,  Va 

Quincy  House,  Boston,  Mass 

Fullerton  Building,  St.  Louis,  Mo 

Arkansas  State  Lunatic  Asylum,  Little  Rock,  Ark.,  second  order, 

California  Hotel,  San  Francisco 

Hospital  St.  Jean  de  Dieu  Insane  Asylum,  Quebec 

Municipal  and  County  Buildings,  Toronto,  Ont 

Forresters'  Temple,  Toronto 


4  Boiler, 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

4 

2 

1 

2 


1500  H.P. 

450 

150 

600 

500 

100 

120 

150 
1000 

250 

255 

500 
3000 

225 

300 

125 

400 
1000 

360 

120 
1500 

130 

200 

750 

150 

200 
85 

100 

408 

130 

200 

375 

540 

300 

120 

150 
60 

250 

450 

120 

500 

360 

356 

120 

154 
1000 

600 

302 

210 

300 
75 

140 
80 

700 

240 


IRON  AND  STEEL  MANUFACTURERS. 

St.  Louis  Stamping  Co.,  St.  Louis  1  Boiler,         40  H.P. 

Troy  Steel  and  Iron  Co.,  Troy,  N.  Y.,  first  order 2  "  175 

Troy  Steel  and  Iron  Co.,  Troy,  N.  Y.,  second  order 8  2560 

Risdon  Iron  Works,  San  Francisco,  Cal 3  "  600     ' 

Tudor  Iron  Works,  St.  Louis  , 2  "  500     ' 

Scherpe  &  Koken,  St.  Louis 1  30 

Shoenberger  &  Co.,  Pittsburg,  Pa 1  "  250 

Oliver  Bros.  &  Phillips,  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  first  order 2  "  500 

Edgar  Thompson  Steel  Works,  Braddock,  Pa  ......  2  "  500 

Union  Steel  Co.,  Chicago,  111 2  "  500     ' 

Jas.  P.  Witherow,  Pittsburg,  Pa 2  "  250 

Troy  Steel  and  Iron  Co.,  Troy,  N.  Y.,  third  order 1  "  125 

Belleville  Nail  Co.,  Belleville,  111  5  1250 

Racine  Hardware  Co.,  Racine,  Wis  1  "  150 

Robt.  Hare  Powel's  Sons,  Saxton,  Pa 750 

Valentine  Ore  Land  Association,  Belief onte,  Pa 3  "  375 

Troy  Steel  and  Iron  Co.,  Troy,  N.  Y.,  fourth  order 2  180 

—167— 


Chicago  Steel  Works,  Chicago,  111 *. 1  Boiler,       150  H.P. 

Troy  Steel  and  Iron  Co.,  Troy,  N.  Y.,  fifth  order 3  "             375     " 

North  Branch  Steel  Co.,  Danville,  Pa 4  "           1280 

Oliver  Bros.  &  Phillips,  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  second  order 1  "             250 

Henry  Disston  &  Sons,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  first  order 1  "             200     " 

Springfield  Iron  Co.,  Springfield,  111 3  "             750     " 

H.  R.  Worthington,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y 2  300     ' 

Henry  Disston  &  Sons,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  second  order 3  "             750 

Oliver  Bros.  &  Phillips,  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  third  order 1  250 

Missouri  Malleable  Iron  Co.,  St.  Louis 1  150 

Helmbacher  Forge  and  Rolling  Mill  Co.,  St.  Louis 1  250     ' 

Chester  Rolling  Mills,  Chester,  Pa 5  1250     " 

Van  Zile,  McCormack  &  Co.,  Albany,  N.  Y 1  150 

Troy  Steel  and  Iron  Co.,  Troy,  N.  Y.,  sixth  order 2  640 

Muskegon  Iron  and  Steel  Co.,  Muskegon,  Mich 1  200 

Muskegon  Iron  and  Steel  Co.,  Muskegon,  Mich.,  second  order,  1  250 

Monterey  Foundry  Co.,  Monterey,  Mex 1  65 

Van  Zile,  McCormack  &  Co.,  Albany,  N.  Y.,  second  order 1  '             150 

Kilmer  Mfg.  Co.,  Newburgh,  N.  Y  5  750 

The  Johnson  Co.,  Johnstown,  Pa 2  '             500 

Strom  Mfg.  Co.,  Chicago,  111 1  120 

Keystone  Rolling  Mill  Co.,  Pittsburg,  Pa  1  150 

St.  Louis  Shovel  Co.,  St.  Louis 1  200 

U.  S.  Iron  and  Tin  Plate  Mfg.  Co.,  Demmler,  Pa 1  250 

Shoenberger,  Speer  &  Co.,  Pittsburg,  Pa 1 

Missouri  Malleable  Iron  Co.,  St.  Louis,  second  order 2  300 

Elba  Iron  Works,  Pittsburg,  Pa 1  150 

Keystone  Rolling  Mill  Co.,  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  second  order 1 

Scherpe  &  Koken  Arch.  Iron  Works  Co.,  St.  Louis,  2d  order ....  2 

The  Johnson  Co.,  Johnstown,  Pa.,  second  order 500 

Addyston  Pipe  and  Steel  Co.,  Addyston,  Ohio 300 

Helmbacher  Forge  &  Rolling  Mill  Co.,  St.  Louis,  second  order,  1 

U.  S.  Iron  and  Tin  Plate  Mfg.  Co.,  Demmler,  Pa.,  second  order,  1 

Tudor  Iron  Works,  St.  Louis,  second  order 2  500 

Illinois  Steel  Co.,  Joliet,  111  4  1000 

U.  S.  Iron  and  Tin  Plate  Mfg.  Co.,  Demmler,  Pa.,  third  order..  4  400 

Illinois  Steel  Co.,  Chicago,  111.,  second  order  4  1000 

S.  T.  Williams  &  Co.,  Muscatine,  Iowa 1  300 

Jas.  McKinney  &  Son,  Albany,  N.  Y 60 

Williams  Rolling  Mills,  Muscatine,  Iowa,  second  order 1  120 

Tudor  Iron  Works,  East  St.  Louis,  third  order 2  750 

Session's  Foundry  Co.,  Bristol,  Conn 3  405 

Illinois  Steel  Co.,  Joliet,  111.,  third  order 2  500 

Illinois  Steel  Co.,  Joliet,  111.,  fourth  order 4  1000 

Jones  &  Laughlin,  L't'd,  Pittsburg,  Pa 1 

Schoenberger  Steel  Co.,  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  second  order 1  300 

Koken  Iron  Works,  St.  Louis,  second  order 1 

Inland  Steel  Co.,  Chicago  Heights,  111 1  150 

ARTIFICIAL  ICE  AND  REFRIGERATOR    COMPANIES. 

Texarkana  Ice  Co.,  Texarkana,  Ark 2  Boiler,       150  H.P. 

Bohlen-Huse  Machine  and  Lake  Ice  Co.,  Memphis,  Tenn 1  110 

Griesedieck  Artificial  Ice  Co.,  St.  Louis,  first  order 1  250 

H.  H.  Bodeman,  St.  Louis 1 

Griesedieck  Artificial  Ice  Co.,  St.  Louis,  second  order 1  250 

Springfield  Ice  and  Refrigerator  Co.,  Springfield,  Mo 1 

H.  Henke  &  Co.,  Houston,  Tex 1  120 

Union  Ice  Mfg.  Co.,  Pittsburg,  Pa 2  600 

New  York  Hygeia  Ice  Co.,  New  York,  N.  Y 2  750     ' 

St.  Joseph  Artificial  I.  and  C.  S.  Co.,  St.  Joseph,  Mo  

Union  Ice  Mfg.  Co.,  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  second  order 1  300 

H.  Henke  &  Co.,  Houston,  Tex.,  second  order 1  300 

New  York  Hygeia  Ice  Co.,  New  York,  N.  Y.,  second  order 1 

H.  Henke  Artificial  Ice  Co.,  Houston,  Tex.,  third  order 1  300 

FLOUR    MILLS. 

Del  Monte  Flour  Mill,  San  Francisco,  Cal 1  Boiler,       180  H.P. 

Chas.  Tiedemann,  Collinsville,  111  1 

Little  Rock  Milling  and  Elevator  Co.,  Little  Rock,  Ark 170 

Parson's  Flour  Mills,  San  Francisco,  Cal 

Capitol  Flour  Mills,  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  first  order 1  140 

Texas  Star  Flour  Mills,  Galveston,  Tex  1  200 

J.  B.  Thro  &  Co.,  St.  Charles,  Mo 1  110 

Eisenmayer  Milling  and  Elevator  Co.,  Halstead,  Kan  ... 

Hardesty  Bros.,  Columbus,  Ohio 1  200 

—168— 


Lyon,  Clement  &  Greenleaf,  Ligonier,  Ind 1  Boiler,       150  H. P. 

Koppitz  &  Smith,  Pacific,  Mo 1  60 

Capitol  Milling  Co.,  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  second  order 1  155 

Colorado  Milling  and  Elevator  Co.,  Denver,  Colo 1       "  250 

The  H.  C.  Cole  Milling  Co.,  Chester,  111 1       "  300 

G.  Ziebold  &  Son,  Red  Bud,  111 1  150 

Glenn  Bros.,  Hillsboro,  111  1  120 

Boney  &  Harper,  Wilmington,  N.  C  1  120 

Blish  Milling  Co.,  Seymour,  Ind 1 

Franz  Huning,  Glorietta  Mills,  Albuquerque,  N.  M 1  80 

Taylor  Bros.  &  Co.,  Quincy,  111 2 

Farmers'  Union  and  Milling  Co.,  Stockton,  Cal  2  500 

R.  T.  Davis  Mill  Co.,  St.  Joseph,  Mo 1  250 

The  Cerealine  Mfg.  Co.,  Indianapolis,  Ind 1 

The  Cerealine  Mfg.  Co.,  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  second  order 1 

Plymouth  Roller  Mill  Co.,  LeMars,  Iowa 1  250 

The  Cerealine  Mfg.  Co.,  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  third  order  1 

McDaniel  &  Co.,  Franklin,  Ind '. 1 

Blish  Milling  Co.,  Seymour,  Ind.,  second  order 1 

The  Cerealine  Mfg.  Co.,  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  fourth  order 1 

The  Russell  &  Miller  M.  Co.,  West  Superior,  Wis 2 

R.  T.  Davis  Mill  Co.,  St.  Joseph,  Mo.,  second  order  1  250 

Metcalf,  Miller  &  Co.,  Palmyra,  Mo 1  120 

J.  S.  Clark,  Troy,  Kan 1 

Ballard  &  Ballard,  Louisville,  Ky 1 

Blish  Milling  Co.,  Seymour,  Ind.,  third  order 1 

Taylor  Bros.,  Quincy,  111.,  second  order 1  250 


2400  H.  P.  Plant  of  Heine  Boilers  at  Anheuser-Busch  Brewery, 
ST.  LOUIS,  MO. 


—  170- 


C.  C.  Washburn  Flouring  Mill  Co 

W.  R.  Klinger,  Hermann,  Mo 

C.  C.  Washburn  Flouring  Mill  Co.,  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  second 

order 

V.  Bachmann,  Indianapolis,  Ind 

BREWERIES  AND  DISTILLERIES. 

Anheuser-Busch  Brewing  Association,  St.  Louis,  first  order 

L.  Hoster  Brewing  Co.,  Columbus,  Ohio,  first  order.... 

Hyde  Park  Brewing  Co.,  St.  Louis 

L.  Hoster  Brewing  Co.,  Columbus,  Ohio,  second  order 

Denver  Brewing  Co.,  Denver,  Colo 

National  Brewery,  San  Francisco,  Cal 

J.  G.  Sohn  &  Co.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  first  order 

L.  Hoster  Brewing  Co.,  Columbus,  Ohio,  third  order 

Anheuser-Busch  Brewing  Association,  St.  Louis,  second  order.... 
J.  B.  Wathen  &  Bro.  Co.  (distillery),  Louisville,  Ky.,  first  order, 

Anheuser-Busch  Brewing  Association,  St.  Louis,  third  order 

Anheuser-Busch  Brewing  Association,  St.  Louis,  fourth  order.... 

Anheuser-Busch  Brewing  Association,  St.  Louis,  fifth  order 

J.  G.  Sohn  &  Co.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  second  order 

Fleischman  &  Co.  (distillery),  Cincinnati,  Ohio 

San  Antonio  Brewing  Association,  San  Antonio,  Tex 

Christ  Moerlein  Brewing  Co.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  first  order 

Cincinnati  Brewing  Co.,  Hamilton,  Ohio 

Albert  Braun  Brewing  Association, ^Seattle,  Wash 

J.  B.  Wathen  &  Bro.  (distillery),  Louisville,  Ky.,  second  order, 

Allen-Bradley'Co.  (distillery),  Louisville,  Ky.,  first  order 

Allen-Bradley  Co.  (distillery),  Louisville,  Ky.,  second  order  .... 
Christ  Moerlein  Brewing  Co.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  second  order.... 

The  Central  Distilling  Co.,  St.  Louis 

St.  Louis  Brewing  Ass'n,  St.  Louis  

Allen-Bradley  Co.,  Louisville,  Ky.,  third  order 

Cincinnati  Brewing  Co.,  Hamilton,  Ohio,  second  order 

Christ  Moerlein  Brewing  Co.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  third  order 

Standard  Brewery,  Chicago,  111 

Barthomolay  Brewing  Co.,  Rochester,  N.  Y 

L.  Hoster  Brewing  Co.,  Columbus,  Ohio,  fourth  order 

Central  Distilling  Co.,  St.  Louis,  second  order 

Lazcano  Y.  Gonzalez  (distillery),  Cardenas,  Cuba 

Wainwright  Brewery  Co.,  Pittsburg,  Pa 

Mutual  Distilling  Co.,  Uniontown,  Ky 

Salvador  Vidal  (distillery),  Cardenas,  Cuba 

Mihalovitch,  Fletcher  &  Co.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio 

The  Allen-Bradley  Co.,  Louisville,  Ky.,  fourth  order 

Keystone  Brewing  Co.,  Pittsburg,  Pa 

The  L.  Hoster  Brewing  Co.,  Columbus,  Ohio,  fifth  order 

Beadleston  &  Woerz  Brewing  Co.,  New  York,  N.  Y  

The  L.  Hoster  Brewing  Co.,  Columbus,  Ohio,  sixth  order 

M.  Winter  &  Bro.,  Pittsburg,  Pa 

R.  C.  Sibley,  East  Cambridge,  Mass 

Bay  State  Distillery  Co.,  East  Cambridge,  Mass 

San  Antonio  Brewing  Association,  San  Antonio,  Tex.,  2d  order, 

J.  Walker  Brewing  Co.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio 

L.  Hoster  Brewing  Co.,  Columbus,  Ohio,  seventh  order 

American  Brewing  Association,  Houston,  Tex 

Galveston  Brewing  Co.,  Galveston,  Tex 

Christian  Moerlein  Brewing  Co.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  fourth  order, 

Bergner  &  Engel  Brewing  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa 

Richmond  Brewery,  Richmond,  Va 

Anheuser-Busch  Brewing  Association,  St.  Louis,  sixth  order 

SUGAR  PLANTATIONS. 

D.  H.  Cunningham,  Sugarland,  Tex 

J.  DeMier,  Santa  Rosa  Plantation,  Cuba 

J.  DeMier,  Santa  Rosa  Plantation,  Cuba,  second  order 

J.  DeMier,  Santa  Joaquin  Plantation,  Cuba,  third  order 

Casanova  Brothers,  Carolina  Plantation,  Cuba 

Henry  Heidegger,  Matanzas,  Cuba 

Carlos,  Booth  &  Co 

Henry  Heidegger,  Matanzas,  Cuba,  second  order 

Casanova  Brothers,  Carolina  Plantation,  Cuba,  second  order 

Vicente  Cagigal  &  Compartes,  Central  Gerardo  P.  Havana,  Cuba, 
J.  DeMier,  Havana,  Cuba,  fourth  order  ... 


3  Boiler, 
1 

3       " 
1       " 


Boiler, 


Boiler, 


1000  H.P. 
100     " 

1536     ' ' 
120     " 


200  H.P. 

250 

200 

320 

200 

160 

150 

300 
1200 

300 

200 

200 
1200 

150 

250 

150 

300 

200 

240 

300 

250 

250 
1200 

900 

300 

300 

"300 

300 

400 

750 

300 

300 

200 

250 

375 

240 

100 
80 

250 

300 

500 

250 

375 

500 

500 

300 

200 

600 

300 

500 

300 

500 

120 

300 


300  H.P. 
1000 
600 
600 
600 
250 
60 
300 
600 
750 
300 


—171— 


CABLE  AND  ELECTRIC  STREET  RAILROAD  COMPANIES. 

St.  Louis  Cable  and  Western  R.  R.,  St.  Louis 1  Boiler,       225  H.P. 

Central  Passenger  R.  R.  Co.  (electric),  Louisville,  Ky.,  1st  order  2       "  400 

People's  R'y  Co.  (cable) ,  St.  Louis 3       "  600 

Union  Depot  R.  R.  Co.  (electric),  St.  Louis,  first  order 3  750 

Colorado  Springs  Rapid  Transit  R'y  Co. ,  Colorado  Springs,  Colo.  ,2       "  300 

Arlington  Heights  Electric  R'y  Co.,  Fort  Worth,  Tex 2  240 

Rochester  R'y  Co.  (electric) ,  Rochester,  N.  Y 4  800 

Glenwood  and  Greenlawn  Street  R'y  Co.,  Columbus,  O.,  1st  order,  1  120 

Street  Railway  Construction  Co.,  Denver,  Colo 3  375 

Union  Depot  R.  R.  Co.  (electric),  St.  Louis,  second  order 2  500 

Central  Passenger  R.  R.  Co.,  Louisville,  Ky.,  second  order 2  400 

Glenwood  and  Greenlawn  Street  R'y  Co.,  Columbus,  O.,  2d  order,  1  120 

City  Electric  Street  R'y  Co.,  Little  Rock,  Ark  3  750 

Dubuque  Electric  R'y,  Light  and  Power  Co.,Dubuque,  Iowa 1  300 

Central  Passenger  R.  R.  Co.,  Louisville,  Ky.,  third  order  1  200 

Oakland,   San   Leandro  and  Haywards  Electric  R'y  Co.,   Oak- 
land, Cal 2  160 

Broadway  and  Seventh  Ave.  R.  R.  Co.  (cable),  New  York  City,  18  4500 

Johnstown  Passenger  R'y  Co.,  Johnstown,  Pa 2  400 

Union  Depot  R.  R.  Co.  (electric),  St.  Louis,  third  order 2  500 

Salt  Lake  Rapid  Transit  Co.,  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 1  200 

Oakland,  San  Leandro  and   Haywards   Electric   R'y   Co.,  Oak- 
land, Cal.,  second  order 1  140 

Jersey  City  and  Bergen  R'y,  Jersey  City,  N.  J  2  600 

Barre  Sliding  R'y  Co.,  Chicago,  111 „ 4  1500 

Chicago  and  North  Shore  Electric  R'y  Co.,  Chicago,  111 3 

Chicago  and  South  Side  Rapid  Transit  Co.,  Chicago,  111 2 

Altoona  and  Logan  Valley  Electric  R'y  Co.,  Altoona,  Pa 2 

Pennsylvania  R.  R.  Co.,  for  Atlantic  City  Electric  R'y,  5th  order,  1 

Northern  Central  R'y  Co.,  Canton,  Baltimore,  Md   1  200 

Ft.  Worth  and  Arlington  Heights  St.  R'y  Co.,  Ft.  Worth,  Tex., 

second  order 1 

Union  Depot  R.  R.  Co.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  fourth  order 4  1000 

East  St.  Louis  Electric  Street  R'y  Co.,  East  St.  Louis,  111 3 

Jersey  City  and  Bergen  R'y  Co.,  Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  2d  order ....  3 

Jersey  Consolidated  Traction  Co.,  Newark,  N.  J 1 

Jersey  Consolidated  Traction  Co.,  Newark,  N.  J  ,  second  order,  1 

Jersey  Consolidated  Traction  Co.,  Newark,  N.  J.,  third  order....  1 

Allegheny  Traction  Co.,  Pittsburg,  Pa 2 

Hartford  Street  Railway  Co.,  Hartford,  Conn  6 

Union  Depot  R.  R.  Co.,  St.  Louis,  fifth  order 

Otis  Engineering  and  Construction   Co.,    Inclined   Road,    Lake 

George,  N.  Y 1  160 

St.  Charles  Street  R'y  Co.,  New  Orleans,  La 615 

Orleans  R'y  Co.,  New  Orleans,  La 

Louisville  R'y  Co.,  Louisville,  Ky.,  fourth  order 1 

Bergen  County  Traction  Co.,  Bergen  Co.,  N.  J 

Luzerne,  Dallas  and  Harvey's  Lake  R'y  Co.,  Wilkesbarre,  Pa  3 

Hartford  Street  R'y  Co.,  Hartford,  Conn.,  second  order    600 

Lynchburg  &  Rivermont  Street  R'y  Co.,  Lynchburg,  Va : 

Toledo  Traction  Co.,  Toledo,  O 2 

J.  G.  Brill,  for  Cape  Town,  Africa  

Second  Avenue  Traction  Co.,  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  second  order 2 

Englewood  &  Chicago  Electric  Street  R'y  Co.,  Chicago,  111 3  600 

Fort  Pitt  Traction  Co..  Allegheny,  Pa  1 

Toledo  Traction  Co.,  Toledo,  O.,  second  order  2  1000 

Philadelphia  and  Reading  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa 1 

Tamalpais  Electric  Ry.  Co.,  California 1  105 

RICE   AND    OIL  MILLS. 

Howard  Oil  Co.,  Houston,  Tex.,  first  order 2  Boiler,       500  H.P. 

Howard  Oil  Co.,  Houston,  Tex.,  second  order 

Galveston  Oil  Co.,  Galveston,  Tex  2 

H.  Shumaker  Oil  Mills,  Navasota,  Tex 

Meridian  Oil  Mills  and  Mfg.  Co.,  Meridian,  Miss 1 

Wilmington  Oil  Mills,  Wilmington,  N.  C 1 

Independent  Cotton  Oil  Co.,  New  Orleans,  La 

Capitol  City  Oil  Works,  Jackson,  Miss.,  first  order 1 

Union  Oil  Co.,  New  Orleans,  La 

Capitol  City  Oil  Mills,  Jackson,  Miss.,  second  order.. 

Crescent  City  Rice  Mill  Co.,  New  Orleans,  La 1 

A.  Socola  Rice  Mills,  New  Orleans,  La 

Mississippi  Cotton  Oil  Co.,  Meridian,  Miss.,  second  order 

National  Cotton  Oil  Co.,  Houston,  Tex.,  third  order 1 

—172— 


National  Cotton  Oil  Co.,  Galveston,  Tex.,  second  order 1  Boiler,  250  H.P. 

National  Cotton  Oil  Co.,  Denison,  Tex.. 2       "  750     " 

Union  Oil  Co.,  Vidalia,  La 1       "  375     « 

National  Cotton  Oil  Co.,  Texarkana,  Ark  1       "  375     " 

Atlantic  Refining  Co.,  Pt.  Breeze,  Pa 2       "  750     " 

ELECTRIC  LIGHT,  POWER  AND  GAS  COMPANIES. 

Springfield  Electric  Light  Co.,  Springfield,  Mo 1  Boiler,         70  H.P. 

St.  Louis  Gas  Light  Co.,  St.  Louis 1  90 

Evanston  Electric  Light  Co.,  Evanston,  111 2  140 

Forest  City  Electric  Light  Co.,  Rockford,  111 1  no 

Des  Moines  Edison  Light  Co.,  Des  Moines,  la.,  first  order 1  200 

Allegheny  County  Light  Co.,  Pittsburg,  Pa 3  960 

Des  Moines  Edison  Light  Co.,  Des  Moines,  la.,  second  order....  1  150 

Columbus  Electric  Light  &  Power  Co.,  Columbus,  O.,  1st  order,  1  250 


Station  C,  Edison  Light  and  Power  Co., 

SAN  FRANCISCO,  CAL. 
Contains  1500  H.  P.  Heine  Boilers. 

Troy  Gas  Light  Co.,  Troy,  N.  Y 1  Boiler,         80  H.P. 

Colorado  Electric  Co.,  Denver,  Colo.,  first  order  4  600 

Little  Rock  Electric  Light  Co.,  Little  Rock,  Ark  1  200 

Colorado  Electric  Co.,  Denver,  Colo.,  second  order 1  150 

Boston  Edison  Co.,  Boston,  Mass 2  500 

Chicago  Edison  Co.,  Chicago,  111.,  first  order  4  1340 

Brush  Electric  Light  and  Power  Co.,  Galveston,  Tex 1  200 

Columbus  Electric  Light  &  Power  Co.,  Columbus,  O.,  2d  order,  1  300 

Colorado  Electric  Co.,  Denver,  Colo.,  third  order   1  300 

—174— 


Columbus  Electric  Light  &  Power  Co.,  Columbus,  O.,  3d  order,  1  Boiler,       300  H.P. 

Colorado  Electric  Co.,  Denver,  Colo.,  fourth  order 1  150 

Pueblo  Gas  and  Electric  Light  Co.,  Pijeblo,  Colo 1  200 

Cedar  Rapids  Electric  Light  and  Power  Co.,  Cedar  Rapids,  la.,  1  125 

Little  Rock  Electric  Light  Co.,  Little  Rock,  Ark.,  2d  order 1  300     ' 

Litchfield  Electric  Light  and  Power  Co.,  Litchfield,  111 1  150 

Boston  Edison  Co.,  Boston,  Mass.,  second  order  1  300 

Laclede  Gas  Co.,  St.  Louis  3  942 

Hill  City  Electric  Light  and  Power  Co.,  Vicksbnrg,  Miss 1  200 

University  Park  Railway  and  Electric  Co.,  Denver,  Colo 1  110 

Hibbard  Electric  Supply  Manufacturing  Co.,  Montreal,  Can  1  200 

Columbus  Electric  Light  &  Power  Co.,  Columbus,  O.,  4th  order  1  300 

Des  Moines  Edison  Light  Co.,  Des  Moines,  la.,  third  order 1  200 

H.  A.  &  T.  C.  Gooch,  Louisville,  Ky  1  150 

Detroit  Electric  Light  and  Power  Co.,  Detroit,  Mich 2  720 

Chicago  Edison  Co.,  Chicago,  111.,  second  order 4  1464 

City  Electric  Light  Co.,  Kalamazoo,  Mich 1  125 

D.  C.  Hartwell,  Ouray,  Colo 1  200 

Milwaukee  Power  and  Lighting  Co.,  Milwaukee,  Wis 1  320 

Citizens'  Gas  Light  and  Heating  Co.,  Bloomington,  111 1  150 

Edison  General  Electric  Co.,  New  York 1  250 

Western  Electrical  Construction  Co.,  Denver,  Colo.,  1st  order..  1  200 

Western  Electrical  Construction  Co.,  Denver,  Colo.,  2d  order....  2  400 

Electrical  Improvement  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal 2  200 

Gooch  Electric  Light  Co.,  Louisville,  Ky 1  256 

Columbus  Electric  Light  &  Power  Co.,  Columbus,  O.,  5th  order,  1  300 

Craig  &  Son,  St.  Cunegard,  Montreal,  Electric  Station 1  150 

St.  Jean  Baptiste  Electric  Co.,  Canada,  first  order 1  150 

Cedar  Rapids  El.  L't  and  P.  Co.,  Cedar  Rapids,  la.,  2d  order ....  2  300 

Ann  Arbor  T.  H.  Electric  Co.,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich  1  150 

Chicago  Edison  Co.,  Chicago,  111.,  third  order 3  1125 

Denver  Consolidated  Electric  Co.,  Denver,  Colo.,  7th  order 2  400 

Vallejo  Electric  Light  and  Power  Co.,  Vallejo,  Cal  2  150 

San  Francisco  Gas  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal 2  350 

Denver  Consolidated  Electric  Co.,  Denver,  Colo.,  eighth  order,  2  400 

Forest  City  Electric  L't  and  Power  Co. ,  Rockford,  111. ,  2d  order,  1  300 

J.  DeMier,  Santa  Rosa,  Cuba 1  60 

Denver  Consolidated  Electric  Co.,  Denver,  Colo.,  ninth  order  ..  1  200 

Brookfield  Electric  Light  Co.,  Brookfield,  Mo 1  150 

St.  Jean  Baptiste  Electric  Co.,  Canada,  second  order  2  500 

Petaluma  Electric  Light  and  Power  Co.,  Petaluma,  Cal 2  150 

Edison  Electric  Illuminating  Co.,  New  York 1  375 

Washington  Gas  Light  Co.,  Washington,  D.  C 2  500 

Temple  Electric  Co.,  Montreal,  Canada 2  400 

City  Electric  Light  Co.,  Kalamazoo,  Mich  ,  second  order 1  150 

Salt  Lake  City  Gas  Co.,  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 2  750 

Forest  City  Electric  L't  and  Power  Co.,  Rockford,  111.,  3d  order,  1  300 

Denver  Consolidated  Electric  Co.,  Denver,  Colo.,  tenth  order....  1  200 

Siemens  &  Halske  Electric  Co.,  Chicago,  111 2  300 

Cedar  Rapids  El.  L't  and  P.  Co.,  Cedar  Rapids,  la.,  3d  order  ..  1  200 

Edison  Electric  Illuminating  Co.,  New  York,  second  order 1  375 

Pennsylvania  R.  R.  Co,,  for  Pittsburg  U.  D.  Elec.  Light  Plant,  2  500 

Chicago  Edison  Co.,  Chicago,  111.,  fourth  order 1  500 

Pennsylvania  R.  R.  Co.,  for  Jersey  City  Depot  Elec.  Light  Plant,  3  1125 

Mutual  Light  and  Power  Co. ,  Montgomery,  Ala 3  600 

Toronto  Electric  Light  Co.,  Toronto,  Ont 2  520 

East  River  Gas  Co.,  Long  Island  City,  N.  Y  4  600 

Chicago  Edison  Co.,  Chicago,  111.    fifth  order 7  3500 

Chicago  Edison  Co.,  Chicago,  111.    sixth  order  1  200 

Chicago  Edison  Co.,  Chicago,  111.    seventh  order 1  375 

Chicago  Edison  Co.,  Chicago,  111.    eighth  order 1  500 

Channon  &  Wheeler,  Quincy,  111 2  620 

Bridge  Mill  Power  Co.,  Pawtucket    R.  1 2  610 

Chicago  Edison  Co.,  Chicago,  111.    ninth  order 2  1148 

WToonsocket  Electric  Machine  and  Power  Co.,  Woonsocket,  R.I.,  2  320 

Dayton  Electric  Light  Co.,  Dayton,  0 3  750 

Denver  Consolidated  Electric  Co.,  Denver,  Colo.,  llth  order 1  375 

Kqlamazoo  Electric  Co.,  Kalamazoo,  Mich  1  375 

Brookline  Gas  Co.,  Boston,  Mass 2  400 

The  T.  Eaton  Co.,  Toronto,  Ont 2  300 

Salt  Lake  &  Ogden  Gas  &  Elec.  L't  Co. ,  Salt  Lake  City,  2d  order,  1  375 

Laclede  Gas  Light  Co.,  St.  Louis,  second  order 1  300 

A.  Von  Rosenzweig,  Mexico  City,  Mexico 3  375 

Edison  Illuminating  Co.,  St.  Louis 15  5600 

General  Electric  Co.,  Schenectady,  N.  Y 1  108 

United  Gas  Improvement  Co.,  Sioux  City,  la 1  255 

—175— 


Kdison  Light  and  Power  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  first  order...  4  Boiler,     1500  H.P. 

T.  Eaton  &  Co.,  Toronto,  Ont.,  second  order 1  150 

J.  J.  Vandergrift,   Pittsburg,  Pa 2  500 

Edison  Light  and  Power  Co.,  San  Francisco,  second  order 2  750 

Brookline  Gas  Light  Co.,  Boston,  Mass  2  400 

Cedar  Rapids  Elec.  Light  and  P.  Co. ,  Cedar  Rapids,  la. ,  4th  order,  1  200 

Indianapolis  Gas  Co.,  Cicero,  Ind 4  1372 

Logansport  &  Wabash  Valley  Gas  Co.,  Windfall,  Ind 1  343 

Mutual  Light  &  Power  Co.,  Montgomery,  Ala.,  second  order  ....  1  200 

Somerville  Electric  Light  Co.,  Somerville,  Mass 2  510 

New  Omaha  T.  H.  Elec.  Light  Co.,  Omaha,   Neb 1  375 

Chicago  Edison  Co.,  tenth  order 1  574 

Chelsea  Gas  Light  Co.,  Chelsea,  Mass 1  225 

Salena,  Va.,  Electric  Light  Plant 1  125 

Newton  and  Watertown  Gas  Light  Co.,  Newton,  Mass 1  305 

New  Omaha  T.  H.  Electric  Light  Co.,  Omaha,  Neb.,  2d  order..  1  375 

Citizens  Electric  Light  and  Power  Co.,  East  St.  Louis,  111  1  250 

Pennsylvania  Heat,  Light  and  Power  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa 2  750 

Toronto  Electric  Light  Co.,  second  order 1  250 

_ . . 


Peoria  Water  Works, 

PEORIA,  ILL. 
Contains  1200  H.  P.  Heine  Boilers. 

WATER   WORKS. 

Stockton  Water  Works,  Stockton,  Cal 1 

Spring  Valley  Water  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal 

Houston  Water  Works,  Houston,  Tex.,  first  order  ... 

Lawrence  Water  Works,  Lawrence,  Kan 2 

National  Water  Works  Co.,  Kansas  City,  Mo 

Texarkana  Water  Co.,  Texarkana,  Ark 

Millbury  Water  Co.,  Millbury,  Mass.,  first  order 

Millbury  Water  Co.,  Millbury,  Mass.,  second  order 1 

Sheboygan  Water  Co.,  Sheboygan,  Wis 

Grafton  Water  Co.,  Grafton,  Dak 

City  Water  Co.,  Chattanooga,  Tenn 

Norristown  Water  Co.,  Norristown,  Pa 

—176— 


Boiler, 


25  H.P. 
600 
220 
180 
800 
160 
100 

85 
150 

50 
250 
300 


Cincinnati  Water  Co.,  Cincinnati,  O  2  Boiler,       600  H.P. 

Jefferson  City  Water  Co.,  Jefferson  City*,  Mo 2  '  290 

Memphis  Artesian  Water  Co.,  Memphis,  Term 6  '  900 

St.  Joseph  Water  Co.,  St.  Joseph,  Mo 2  '  260 

Montreal  Water  Co.,  Montreal,  Can , 3  '  600 

Houston  Water  Works,  Houston,  Tex.,  second  order 1  '  230 

Peoria  Water  WTorks,  Peoria,  111 '. 6  '  1200 

Citv  Water  Co.,  Chattanooga,  Tenn.,  second  order 1  '  250 

L.  ~&  W.  B.  Bull,  Quincy,  111 • 1  '  250 

L.  &  W.  B.  Bull,  Quincy,  111.,  second  order 1  '  250 

Sheboygan  Water  Co.,  Sheboygan,  Wis.,  second  order  1  '  150 

Houston  Water  Works,  Houston,  Tex.,  third  order 1  '  150 

St.  Joseph  Water  Co.,  St.  Joseph,  Mo.,  second  order 1  '  250 

H.  D.  Campbell  &  Sons,  Traverse  City,  Mich 1  '  150 

Olympic  Salt  Water  Co.,  San  Francisco 2  '  150 

Mahanoy  City  Water  Works,  Mahanoy  City,  Pa 1  •    '  300 

St.  Clair  Water  Co.,  Pittsburg,  Pa  3  '  480 

Spring  Valley  Water  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  second  order 1  '  120 

Maysville  Water  Co.,  Maysville,  Ky 2  '.  200 

Worcester  Engineering  Co.,  Millbury  (Water  Co.),  Mass 1  '  85 

Worcester  Engineering  Co.,  Millbury  (Water  Co.),  Mass  1  '  85 

City  \Vater  Board,  Wheeling,  W.  V a 2  '  400 

City  Water  Board,  Wheeling,  W.  Va.,  second  order 2  '  400 

Tyler  Water  Co.,  Tyler,  Tex 1  '  130 

MINING,  COAL  AND  SMELTING    COMPANIES. 

Quartz  Mountain  Mining  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal 1  Boiler,       165  H.P. 

Santa  Anna  Mining  Co.,  Oposura,  Mex 2  '  180 

La  Plata  Mining  and  Smelting  Co.,  Leadville,  Colo 1  '  110 

Philadelphia  Smelting  and  Refining  Co.,  Pueblo,  Colo 3  '  360 

Cannon  Coal  Co.,  Denver,  Colo 1  '  150 

Alaska  Treadwell  Gold  Mining  Co.,  Douglas  Island,  Alaska 2  '  400 

Silver  Age  Mining  Co.,  Idaho  Springs,  Colo.. 1  '  100 

Boston  and  Montana  C.  C.  and  S.  M.  Co.,  Great  Falls,  Mont  ...  2  '  300 

Alaska  Treadwell  G.  M.  Co.,  Alaska,  second  order 1  '  200 

Madison  Coal  Co.,  St.  Louis 1  '  200 

W.  Y.  O.  D.  Mining  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal 1  '  150 

Kilpatrick  Bros.  &  Collins  (coal  mines),  Cambria,  Wyoming  ...  1  '  300 

Magnetic  Iron  Ore  Co.,  Carthage,  N.  Y " 2  '  300 

De  Lamar  Gold  Mining  Co.,  De  Lamar,  Nev 1  '  120 

Solvay  Process  Co.,  Syracuse,  N.  Y 4  '  1000 

Hocking  Valley  Coal  Co.,  Nelsonville,  O 2  '  400 

St.  Joe  Lead  Co.,  Bonne  Terre,  Mo.,  first  order  1  '  375 

Paymaster  Mining  Co.,  Ogilvy,  Cal 1  '  75 

St.  Joe  Lead  Co.,  Bonne  Terre,  Mo.,  second  order 1  '  375 

St.  Joe  Lead  Co.,  Bonne  Terre,  Mo.,  third  order 1  '  375 

Chas.  Wagner,  Mexico 1  '  120 

Desloge  Consolidated  Lead  Co.,  Bonne  Terre,  Mo  .*. 2  '  600 

Omaha  and  Grant  Smelting  Works,  Denver,  Colo 3  '  750 

St.  Joe  Lead  Co.,  Bonne  Terre,  Mo.,  fourth  order 1  '  375 

Globe  Smelting  and  Refining  Co.,  Denver,  Colo 1  '  200 

Ocean  Coal  Co.,  Horatio,  Pa 3  '  600 

Owsley  &  Cowan,  Butte,  Mont 2  '  400 

Arizona  Copper  Co.,  Clifton,  Ariz 2  '  300 

De  Lamar  Gold  Mining  Co.,  De  Lamar,  Nev.,  second  order 1  '  120 

E.  G.  Stoiler,  Unity  Tunnel,  Silverton,  Colo   1  '  60 

J.  R.  De  Lamar,  Milford,  Utah  2  '  250 

Independence  Mine,  Victor,  Colo 1  '  300 

Independence  Mine,  Victor,  Colo.,  second  order 1  '  300 

Anaconda  Copper  Mining  Co.,  Anaconda,  Mont 2  '  750 

Independence  Mine,  Victor,  Colo.,  third  order  1  '  300 

Solvay  Process  Co.,  Sharon,  Pa.,  second  order  2  '  500 

Anaconda  Copper  Mining  Co.,  Anaconda,  Mont.,  second  order,  2  '  750 

Mountain  Copper  Co ; 1  '  200 

Canadian  Gold  Field  Co 2  '  160 

International  Coal  Mining  Co 1  '  150 

IRON  FURNACES. 

De  Bardeleben  Coal  and  Iron  Co.,  Birmingham,  Ala.,  1st  order,  5  Boiler,     1250  H.P. 

Sheffield  Iron  Co.,  Sheffield,  Ala.,  first  order 3  '  750 

Lady  Ensley  Furnace  Co.,  Sheffield,  Ala.,. first  order 3  '  750 

Mexican  Iron  Mountain  Mfg.  Co.,  Durango,  Mex 2  '  300 

Pulaski  Iron  Co.,  Pulaski  City,  Va.,  first  order 3  '  960 

Ashland  Iron  and  Steel  Co.,  Ashland,  Wis  3  '  450 

Cameron  Coal  Co.,  Cameron,  Pa.,  first  order 3  '  750 


—177- 


Cameron  Coal  Co.,  Cameron,  Pa.,  second  order  1  Boiler,       250  H.P. 

New  River  Mineral  Co.,  New  River  Depot,  Va 2  300 

Pulaski  Iron  Co.,  Pulaski  City,  Va.,  second  order 1  320 

Sheffield  Iron  Co.,  Sheffield,  Ala.,  second  order 1  250 

Lady  Ensley  Furnace  Co.,  Sheffield,  Ala.,  second  order 1  250 

De  Bardeleben  Coal  and  Iron  Co.,  Birmingham,  Ala.,  2d  order,  7  2240 

Pulaski  Iron  Co.,  Pulaski  City,  Va.,  third  order 1  320 

PACKING  HOUSES. 

Armour  Packing  Co.,  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  first  order 1  Boiler,       300  H.P. 

Armour  Packing  Co.,  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  second  order 1  300 

Kansas  City  Packing  Co.,  Kansas  City,  Mo  1  300 

Fort  Worth  Packing  Co.,  Fort  Worth,  Tex.,  first  order 1  300 

Fort  Worth  Packing  Co.,  Fort  Worth,  Tex.,  second  order 1  300 

Roth -Meyer  Packing  Co.,  Cincinnati,  Ohi@ 3  300 

N.  K.  Fairbank  &  Co.,  St.  Louis,  first  order 2  600 

N.  K.  Fairbank  &  Co.,  Chicago,  111.,  first  order 1  500 

N.  K.  Fairbank  &  Co.,  St.  Louis,  second  order 1  500 

N.  K.  Fairbank  &  Co.,  Chicago,  111.,  second  order 2  1000 

Nelson  Morris  &  Co.,  Chicago,  111 2  500 

K.  C.  Packing  Co.,  Schwartzschild-Sultzberger  Co.,  2d  order....  2  600 

Swift  &  Co.,  Kansas  City,  Mo 2  740 

N.  K.  Fairbank  &  Co.,  Chicago,  111.,  fourth  order 1  250 

St.  Louis  Dressed  Beef  and  Provision  Co.,  St.  Louis 1  375 

Swift  &  Co.,  East  St.  Louis,  111.,  second  order 1  370 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Chicago  Corset  Co.,  Aurora,  111 2  Boiler,       120  H.P. 

Phosnix  Chair  Co.,  Sheboygan,  Wis.,  first  order 2  450 

H.  E.  Roth,  Sheboygan,  Wis 1  30 

Julius  Berkey  Felt  Boot  Co.,  Grand  Rapids,  Mich 1  140 

P.  B.  Mathiason  &  Co.,  Bone  Black  Works,  St.  Louis   2  180 

W.  T.  Coleman  &  Co.,  Borax  Works,  San  Francisco,  Cal 1  65 

California  Powder  Mills 1  65 

W.  S.  Tpwnsend,  Candy  Manufacturer,  San  Francisco,  Cal 1  130 

California  Jute  Mills,  Oakland,  Cal 2  220 

M.  P.  Robinson,  Honolulu,  Sandwich  Islands 1  75 

Springfield  Wagon  Co.,  Springfield,  Mo 1  110 

G.  B.  Kane  &  Co.,  Chicago,  111 1  20 

Union  Tobacco  Works,  Louisville,  Ky 1  70 

Houston  &  Texas  Central  R'y,  Houston,  Tex.,  first  order 1  200 

J.  J.  Langles  &  Co.,  New  Orleans,  La 1  55 

Chicago  Copper  Refining  Co.,  Chicago,  111.,  first  order.        .1  120 

R.  L.  McDonald  &  Co.,  St.  Joseph,  Mo... 1  80 

James  Roy  &  Co.,  Troy,  N.  Y 2  180 

Chicago  Corset  Co.,  Aurora,  111.,  second  order 1  110 

Hueter  Bros.  &  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal 1  80 

Houston  &  Texas  Central  R'y,  Houston,  Tex.,  second  order 1  200 

Brittain,  Richardson  &  Co.,  St.  Joseph,  Mo 1  90 

Orr's  Paper  Mills,  Troy,  N.  Y 1  125 

Benecia  Agricultural  Works,  Benecia,  Cal 1  100 

A.  H.  Belo  &  Co.,  Galveston,  Tex  1  50 

King  Kalakua,  Honolulu,  Sandwich  Islands 1  80 

J.  G.  Johnson  &  Co.,  Spuyten  Duyval,  N.  Y 1  90 

Kiddel  &  Stewart,  Denver,  Colo _ 1  110 

Tim  Wallerstein  &  Co.,  Troy,  N.  Y 1  50 

B.  J.  Johnson  &  Co.,  Milwaukee,  Wis  1  110 

Carteret  Chemical  Co.,  Newark,  N.  J 1  150 

John  Mouat  Lumber  Co.,  Denver,  Colo 1  110 

Forest  Paper  Co.,  Yarmouthville,  Me 2  300 

Cumberland  Mills,  Cumberland,  Me  2  300 

Kansas  City,  Fort  Scott  &  Gulf  R.  R.,  Springfield,  Mo 1  150 

Los  Angeles  Machinery  Depot,  Los  Angeles,  Cal  1  75 

A.  Bering  &  Bro.,  Houston,  Tex 1  110 

Wm.  H.  Bungee,  Chicago,  111 1 

Phrenix  Chair  Co.,  Sheboygan,  Wis.,  second  order 1  150 

Dallas  Cotton  and  Woolen  Mills,  Dallas,  Tex 2  400 

Loomis  Gas  Machinery  Co.,  Philadelphia  1  110 

Sommer,  Richardson  &  Co.,  St.  Joseph,  Mo 1  110 

Charles  Stern,  Los  Angeles,  Cal 1  165 

La  Constancia  Woolen  Mills,  Durango,  Mex 1  75 

A.  C.  Melchert,  Albany,  N.  Y  1  150 

Arkadelphia  Cotton  Mills,  Arkadelphia,  Ark 1  150 

Spring  Grove  Cemetery,  Cincinnati,  O 1  80 

—178— 


Gilbert  &  Walker,  Honolulu,  Sandwich  Islands 1  Boiler,  55  H.P. 

Meier  &  Kruse,  Honolulu,  Sandwich  Islands 1  "  55     " 

Crocker  Chair  Co.,  Sheboygan,  Wis 1  "  300 

Mexican  Central  Railway 2  "  150 

Christian  Peper  Tobacco  Factory,  St.  Louis 1  "  200 

Chicago  Copper  Refining  Co.,  Chicago,  111.,  second  order 1  "  100 

Seeger  &  Guernsey,  N.  Y.,  for  Senpr  Pechado,  Toluca,  Mex 1  "  75 

American  Mfg.  Co.,  Sheboygan,  Wis 1  "  200 

Gutta  Percha  and  Rubber  Mfg.  Co.,  California  1  "  100 

Williarnette  Pulp  Paper  Co.,  Oregon  City,  Ore  2  "  300 

A.  Meinicke  &  Son,  Milwaukee,  Wis 1  "  150 

Louisiana  Furniture  Mfg.  Co.,  New  Orleans,  La 1  '  150 

Rockford  Hosiery  and  Mitten  Co.,  Rockford,  111 1  '  120 

Beckett  Paper  Co.,  Hamilton,  O   1  '  250 

Western  Wheel  Works,  Chicago,  111 2  '  600 

A.  H.  Andrews  &  Co.,  Chicago,  111  1  '  250 

Publishers,  Geo.  Knapp  &  Co.,  St.  Louis  Republic,  St.  Louis....  1  120 

Seeger  &  Guernsey,  New  York  City  and  City  of  Mexico,  Mex....  1  "  80 

Aug.  Beck  &  Co.,  Chicago,  111 1  "  130 

L.  H.  Prentice  &  Co.,  Chicago,  111 2  150 

Orrs  &  Co.,  Troy,  N.  Y.,  second  order 2  250 

Tompkins  Paper  Stock  Co.,  Troy,  N.  Y 1  '  125 

Tim  Co.,  Collar  and  Shirt  Factory,  Troy,  N.  Y 1  '  120 

Albany  Card  Paper  Co.,  Albany,  N.  Y 1  '  150 

Wm.  Angus  &  Co.,  East  Angus,  P.  Quebec 1  '  150 

D.  L.  Parish  Laundry  Co.,  St.  Louis 1  '  80 

Temple  Co.,  Muskegon,  Mich 1  "  250 

Williamette  Paper  Co.,  Oregon  City,  Ore.,  second  order 1  "  200 

Royal  Pulp  and  Paper  Co.,  East  Angus,  P.  Quebec 2  "  300 

Western  Wheel  Works,  Chicago,  111.,  second  order 2  "  400 

Heath  &  Milligan  Mfg.  Co.,  Chicago,  111 1  "  200 

McCormick  Harvester  Machine  Co.,  Chicago,  111 1  '  375 

American  Wood  Paper  Co.,  Manayunk,  Pa 2  '  500 

Publishers,  George  Knapp  &  Co.,  St.  Louis,  second  order 1  '  120 

Courier-Journal  Co.,  Louisville,  Ky 2  '  240 

Bausch  &  Lomb  Opt.  Co.,  Rochester,  N.  Y :....  2  '  500 

Denver  Paper  Mills  Co.,  Denver,  Colo 1  "  300 

Cortina,  Pichardo  &  Co.,  Toluca,  Mex '. 1  "  75 

Phcenix  Furniture  Co.,  Grand  Rapids,  Mich 1  "  150 

Dominion  Cotton  Mills  Co.,  Canada 3  "  450 

Robert  White  &  Co.,  Canada 1  "  150 

Montreal  Carriage  Leather  Co 1  "  75 

Sewerage  Works,  Stockton,  Cal 2  "  80 

Bastion  &  Valiquetto,  Canada 1  "  50 

Eagle  Automatic  Can  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal 1  "  100 

Orrs  &  Co.,  Troy,  N.  Y.,  third  order 3  '  450 

Bottsford  Paper  Mill  Co.,  Kalamazoo,  Mich 2  '  400 

Edward  E.  Barton,  Hutchison,  Kan 2  '  500 

Pennsylvania  R.  R.  Co.,  for  Renova,  Pa.,  shops,  first  order 2  '  600 

Pennsylvania  R.  R.  Co.,  for  Pittsburg  shops,  second  order 2  '  500 

Thos.  D.  Whitaker,  Phillipsburg,  N.  J 2  '  250 

The  Iowa  Farming  Tool  Co.,  Fort  Madison,  Iowa  1  '  250 

W.  A.  Elmendorf,  Chicago,  111 1  '  20 

Pennsylvania  R.  R.  Co.,  for  Jersey  City,  third  order  3  '  1125 

The  Burkey  &  Gay  Furniture  Co.,  Grand  Rapids,  Mich 1  '  300 

Pennsylvania  R.  R.  Co.,  Broad  St.  Station,  Phil.,  Pa.,  4th order,  3  '  900 

Hubbard  &  Co.,  Pittsburg,  Pa 1  '  250 

National  Starch  Mfg.  Co.,  Glen  Cove,  N.  Y 1  "  150 

Northwestern  Terre  Cotta  Co.,  Chicago,  111 1  "  150 

Buffalo  Brass  Co.,  Buffalo,  N.  Y 1  "  60 

Mallinckrodt  Chemical  Works,  St.  Louis 1  "  375 

Ferris  Wheel,  World's  Columbian  Exposition,  Chicago,  111 3  "  750 

Smith  &  Barnes  Piano  Co.,  Chicago,  111 1  "  200 

Beaver  &  Co.,  Soap  Works,  Dayton,  Ohio 1  '  200 

National  Carbon  Co.,  Cleveland,  Ohio 4  '  1000 

L.  Waterbury  &  Co.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y 4  '  800 

Sterrit  &  Thomas,  Pittsburg,  Pa 1  '  50 

C.  L.  Colman,  Lumber,  La  Crosse,  Wis 1  '  120 

St.  Louis  Dried  Grains  Co 1  '  200 

Lannett  Cotton  Mills,  West  Point,  Ga 3  '  900 

Jno.  D.  Spreckles  Bro.,  San  Francisco,  Cal  1  '  30 

Sterling  White  Lead  Co.,  Pittsburg,  Pa  1  '  250 

Duryea  Starch  Co.,  Glen  Cove,  Long  Island 1  '  200 

JEtna  Paper  Co.,  Dayton,  Ohio 1  '  300 

Wm.  Deering  &  Co.,  Chicago,  111 2  '  750 


—179- 


Missouri  State  Penitentiary,  Jefferson  City,  Mo 4  Boiler, 

Wm.  Campbell  &  Co.,  New  York  City 1 

Peerless  Brick  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa  1 

Whitaker  Cement  Co.,  Phillipsburg,  N.  J.,  second  order 1 

National  Lead  Co.,  St.  Louis 1 

Wilmington  Cotton  Mills,  Wilmington,  N.  C 1 

Heath  &  Milligan  Mig.  Co.,  Chicago,  111.,  second  order 1 

Hamilton  Power  Co.,  Montreal,  Canada 2 

W.  G.  Warden,  Philadelphia,  Pa 5 

J.  L.  Ketterlinus,  Philadelphia,  Pa 2 

Theo.  Kuntz,  Cleveland,  Ohio 2 

Rockford  Mitten  and  Hosiery  Co.,  Rockford,  111.,  2d  order 


Deering  Harvester  Co.,  Chicago,  111.,  second  order 2 


1500  H.P. 
200 
120 
250 
250 
250 
200 
2-40 
75C 
180 
400 
400 
928 


Heath  &  Milligan  Mfg.  Co., 

CHICAGO,  ILL. 
Contains  400  H.  P.  Heine  Boilers. 


Leona  Cotton  Mills,  Monterey,  Mex  1  Boiler,       100  H.P. 

Deering  Harvester  Co.,  Chicago,  111.,  third  order 1  250 

J.  Home  &  Co.,  Pittsburg,  Pa 2  240 

Pennsylvania  R.  R.  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  sixth  order 500 

Pennsylvania  R.  R.  Co.,  Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  seventh  order 1 

Partridge  &  Netcher,  Boston  Store,  Chicago,  111 1 

Mississippi  River  Dredge  Boat  "Beta" 4 

—180— 


Northwestern  Terra  Cotta  Co.,  Chicago,  111.,  second  order 

R.  H.  White  &  Co.,  Boston,  Mass  

New  Orleans  Sewerage  Co.,  New  Orleans,  La  

National  Sewing  Machine  Co.,  Befvedere,  111... 

Ansonia  Brass  and  Copper  Co.,  Ansonia,  Conn 

Kaufmann  Bros.,  Pittsburg,  Pa 

Griffin  Mfg.  Co.,  Griffin,  Ga 

Warren  Mfg.  Co.,  Warren,  R.  I 

Eastman's  Co.,  New  York  City 

Russell  &  Co.,  Massillon,  Ohio 

Burlington  Elevator  Co.,  St.  Louis 

Woonsocket  Worsted  Mills,  Woonsocket,  R.  I 

Northwestern  Terra  Cotta  Co.,  Chicago,  111.,  third  order... 

Arlington  Mfg.  Co.,  Arlington,  N.  J 

J.  W.  Peters  Fish  &  Oyster  Co.,  St.  Louis 

Rockford  Sugar  Works,  Rockford,  111 

Mallinckrodt  Chemical  Co.,  St.  Louis,  second  order 

New  Brittain  Knitting  Co.,  New  Brittain,  Conn  

Pennsylvania  R.  R.  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  eighth  order  

Proximity  Mfg.  Co.,  Greensboro,  N.  C 

Louis  Reibold,  Dayton,  Ohio  

Fleischmann  &  Co.,  Greenspoint,  N.  Y 

Frank  Jones,  Portsmouth,  N.  H 

Pennsylvania  R.  R.  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  ninth  order 

Drummond  Mfg.  Co.,  Louisville,  Ky 

Sormova  Co.,  Nijni  Novgorod,  Russia 

U.  S.  Dredge  Boat  Delta 

Wm.  A.  Talcott,  Rockford,  111... 

Deering  Harvester  Co.,  Chicago,  111.,  third  order 

Struller,  Meyer  &  Julia  Co.,  City  of  Mexico 

R.  H.  &  C.  B.  Reeves,  Camden,  N.  J 

S.  Ishida,  Yokohama,  Japan 

Van  Zile  &  Chrysler,  Albany,  N.  Y 

Sterling  White  Lead  Co.,  New  Kensington,  Pa.,  second  order.... 

Chas.  F.  Joy,  St.  Louis 

Booth  &  Son,  California 

Job  Mills,  California  

H.  P.  Faye  &  Co.,  California 

K.  Cohn  &  Co.,  California 

Chelsea  Jute  Mills,  Greensport,  N.  Y 

National  Sewing  Machine  Co.,  Belvidere,  111.,  second  order 


Boiler, 


150  H 

630 

200 

150 
1020 

150 

300 
1220 

250 

400 

510 

320 

200 

250 
90 

900 

500 

305 
1000 

500 

300 

880 

600 

500 
80 

250 
1000 

170 

873 
75 

150 

500 

100 

250 

250 

200 

120 

100 

105 
1515 

250 


P. 


—181— 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Absorption  and  transmission  of  heat  in  Heine  Boilers 142 

Advantages  of  oil  as  a  fuel 32,  36 

Air  consumed  in  combustion  of  fuel  13,  111 

necessary  for  ventilation.     Amount  of,  Table  50 87 

heating  of .' 83 

Allegheny  Traction  Co.  (Illustration)  69 

American  Coals.     Composition  of,  Table  12 20,  21 

Analyses  of  gases,  Tables  22,  23,  29,  32   45,  47,  49,  54 

of  petroleum,  Table  19 32 

of  petroleum  oil,  Table  20 32 

of  water,  Table  33  60 

Analysis  of  water 57 

of  wood,  Table  15 26 

Anheuser-Busch  Brewery  (Illustration) 123 

Asphalt 25 

Composition  of 26 

Athletic  Club  Building  (Illustration) 151 

Bagasse  29 

Bends.     Loss  of  head  due  to 66 

Beta  Dredge  Boat  (Illustration) 35 

Betz  Building  (Illustration) 73 

Boilers.     Cast-iron  end  connections  (Illustration)  148 

Effect  of  oil  in 61 

Energy  stored  in,  Table  47  80,  82 

Relation  to  radiating  surface  88 

Rating  of 68,  79 

Boiler.     Horse  power 79 

Boiler  Plant.     A  modern 124 

A  modern,  the  boiler 127 

A  modern,  the  chimney 125 

A  modern,  the  furnace 126 

Boiler  Tests.     Code  of  rules  for  99 

Starting  and  stopping  the  test 99 

Starting  and  stopping  the  test,  standard  method 99 

Starting  and  stopping  the  test,  alternate  method 99 

During  the  test 101 

During  the  test,  conditions 101 

During  the  test,  records 101 

During  the  test,  priming  tests 101 

Analyses  of  gases 102 

Measurement  of  air  supply 102 

Form  of  record,  Table  58 102 

Reporting  the  trial,  Table  59 102,  103,  104 

Boiler  to  contents  of  building.     Relation  of,  Table  52 88 

to  radiating  surface.     Relation  of 88 

Boiler  Tubes.     Standard  sizes,  Table  87  164 

Boiling  points  of  substances,  Table  4 8 

Bowling  Green  Building  (Illustration) 165 

Bridge  Mill  and  Power  Co.  (Illustration) 30- 

British  and  foreign  coals.     Composition  of,  Table  13 22 

British  thermal  unit 5 

Broad  Street  Station,  Philadelphia  (Illustration) 81 

Broadway  and  Seventh  Avenue  Cable  Railway  Boilers  (Illustration) 90' 

Brown's  Palace  Hotel  (Illustration) 16 

Buildings  heated  by  steam 83 

Calorific  values  of  different  gases 45 

Cape  Town  Tramways  Co.  (Illustration)  94 

Carnegie  Building  (Illustration)   23 

Cast-iron  end  connections  on  sectional  boilers  (Illustration) '. 148 

Central. Distillery  (Illustration) 120 

Circles.     Diam.  and  circum.  and  contents  at  one  foot  depth.     Table  72 154 

—182— 


Marquette  Building, 

CHICAGO,  ILL. 

Contains  1000  H.  P.  of  Heine  Boilers. 


Page. 

Circles.     Diatn.  and  circum.,  Table  71 153 

Chimneys  and  draft 109 

Chimney.     Formulae  116 

Gases,  weight  and  volume,  Table  65 112 

Gases,  velocity 114 

Chimney  at  Omaha  and  Grant  S.  and  R.  Wks.  (Illustration)  110 

Chimney.     Example  of  an  iron  (Illustration). 113 

Chimney  of  the  Union  Depot  Ry.  Co.  (Illustration)  117 

Chimney,  sizes  of,  Table  68 .". 119 

City  and  County  Building  (Illustration) 56 

Coal.     A  short  history  of 17 

Classification  of 19 

Combustion  of 24 

Composition  of  American,  Table  12  20,  21 

Composition  of  British  and  Foreign,  Table  13 22 

Composition  of  French,  Table  14 24 

Coal  Mined  in  the  United  States,  Table  11 19 

Coal.     Weights  and  measures  of 19 

Wood  equivalent  of : 28 

Combustible.     Evap.  power  of  one  pound  of 14 

Heating  power  of  one  pound  of 14 

Combustion  1 13 

Air  consumed  in 13 

Conditions  for  complete 13 

data,  Table  8 13 

and  volume  of  products.     Temp,  of,  Table  10 16 

of  coal 24 

of  fuel.     Air  consumed 13 

of  gas.     Resultant  gases,  Table  25 48 

Volume  of  gaseous  products  of 14 

Condensation.     Cylinder,  Table  46 77 

Loss  due  to  cylinder,  Tables  44,  45 76 

of  steam  in  pipes  ... 106 

of  steam  in  uncovered  pipes,  Table  60 106 

of  steam  in  covered  pipes,  Table  61 106 

Condensers 93 

Amount  of  water  required  by  95 

Contents  of  buildings.     Relation  of  boiler  to,  Table  52 88 

Cost  of  fuel  gases,  Tables  28,  31 49,  52 

Covering  for  pipes,  Table  61 107 

Cvlinder  condensation,  Table  46 77 

Loss  due  to,  Tables  44,  45  76 

Decimals  of  a  square  foot  in  square  inches,  Table  78 159 

Denver  Cons.  Elec.  Light  Co.  (Illustration) 108 

Description  of  Heine  Boiler 134 

Draft 109 

reduction  by  friction,  Table  69 119 

Dredge  Boat  Beta  (Illustration) 35 

Dryness  of  steam  in  Heine  Boiler 149 

Duty  of  pumping  engines  .-. 91,  92 

Edison  Illuminating  Co.  Station  (Illustration) 173,   174 

Effect  of  oil  in  boilers 61 

Electrical  unit  of  power 5 

Energy  stored  in  steam  boilers,  Table  47  80,  82 

Engines.     Comparison  of 79 

Duty  of  pumping 91,  92 

Horse  power  of 95 

Schichau  (Illustration) 161 

Weight  of  feed  water  required  for,  Tables  38,  39,  55 68,  69,  92 

Equitable  Building  (Illustration) 105 

Erection  of  Heine  Boilers 136 

Evaporative  power  of  one  pound  combustible,  Table  9 14,  15 

of  different  gases,  Tables  24,  26,  30..... 47,  48,  50 

Expansion  of  solids,  Table  6 10 

in  Heine  Boilers 148 

% 

N.  K.  Fairbank's  Works  (Illustration) 18 

Factors  of  Evaporation,  Table  70 152 

Forresters'  Temple  (Illustration) 67 

Friction  in  flues 119 

Fusible  plugs,  Table  5 

Feed  Pipes.     Loss  of  pressure  in,  Table  36 65 

—184— 


Page. 

Feed  Pipes.     Rate  of  flow  of  water  in,  Table  35 64 

Size  of  boiler 65 

Feed  Pump.     Example  of  pressure  on  plunger  of 66 

Feed  Water.     Per  cent  of  saving  by  heating,  Table  40 70 

Feed  water  required  for  engines.     Weight  of,  Tables  38,  39 68,  69 

Firing.     Modes  of 25 

Fractions  of  an  inch  in  decimals,  Table  75 156 

French  coals.     Composition  of,  Table  14 24 

French  and  English  units  of  power.     Relation  of,  Table  2 6 

compound  units  of  power.     Relation  of,  Table  3 6 

French  and  U.  S.  measures  of  length,  Table  79 160 

measures  of  liquid,  Table  82 161 

measures  of  surface,  Table  80  160 

measures  of  volume,  Table  83  161 

measures  of  weight,  Table  81 160 

Fuel.     Advantages  of  oil  as  a ; 32 

Air  consumed  in  combustion  of 13 

Conditions  for  complete  combustion  of 13 

Gas 44 

Gas.     Cost  of,  Table  28 49 

Heat  evolved  by  various,  Table  9 15 

Liquid 31 

Oil  as  a 32 

Saving  by  heating  feed  water,  Table  40 70 

Tests  with 36,  43 

Gas.  Analysis  of  natural,  Table  32 54 

Analysis  of  water,  Table  29 49 

Composition  of  fuel,  Tables  22,  23 45,  46 

Cost  of  fuel,  Table  28 49 

Cost  of  water,  Table  31 52 

Estimate  of  cost  of  fuel 52 

Fuel 44 

Natural 52,  53 

Oxygen  absorbed  and  CO2  produced  by,  Table  27 48 

Relative  values  of  fuel,  Table  21  45 

Resultant  gases  of  combustion  of,  Table  25 48 

Test  of  water,  Table  30 50 

Gas.  Water  evaporated  by,  Table  26 48 

Water  evaporated  by,  Table  24 47 

Gases  produced  from  combustion  of  one  pound  wood,  Table  16 28 

Velocity  in  chimney 114 

Gases.     Weight  and  volume  of  chimney,  Table  65 112 

Grand  Republic  Mills  (Illustration) 12 

Heat  5 

and  power,  units  and  relation  of,  Tables  1,  2,  3 6 

as  a  form  of  energy 5 

evolved  by  various  fuels,  Table  9 15 

Measures  of 5 

Heat  of  expansion.     Latent 7 

Heat  of  combustion  of  straw  and  tan  bark 31 

Heat.     Sensible  and  latent 7 

Specific,  Table  7 11 

Heat  transformations 6 

Heat  transmitted  by  radiating  surfaces,  Table  51 87 

per  square  foot  of  surface,  Table  48,  diagram 84 

per  square  foot  of  brick  wall,  Table  49  85 

Heath  &  Milligan  Mfg.  Co.  (Illustration) 180 

Heating  air 83 

buildings  by  steam 83 

feed  water.     Per  cent  of  saving,  Table  40 .-. 70 

liquids  by  steam  88 

water  by  steam  89 

power  of  one  pound  of  combustible 14 

Heine  Safety  Boiler  (Illustration) 135 

Heine  Boilers  at  Anheuser-Busch  Brewery  (Illustration) 170 

at  Allegheny  Traction  Co.  (Illustration) 69 

at  Broadway  and  Seventh  avenue  Power  House  (Illustration) 90 

at  Central  Distillery  (Illustration)  120 

at  People's  Railway  Power  House  (Illustration) 51 

at  Union  Depot  Railway  Plant  (Illustration) 128 

at  World's  Fair  (Illustration) 4 

at  Orleans  Traction  Co.  (Illustration) 21 

—185— 


Page. 

Heine  Boilers  at  Chicago  Kdison  Station  (Illustration)  9 

being  moved  (Illustration) 44,  62,  94,  104 

over  puddling  furnace  (Illustration) 144 

Heine  Boiler.  150  horse  power  (Illustration) 78 

375  horse  power  (Illustration) 133 

500  horse  power  (Illustration) 54 

Absorption  and  transmission  of  heat  in 142 

Description  of 134 

Dryness  of  steam  in 149 

Erection  and  walling  in  of 136 

Expansion  in 148 

Longitudinal  section  of  (Illustration)  139 

Operation  of 138 

Precipitation  and  discharge  of  impurities  in  150 

Safety  at  high  pressures 146 

Section  of  water  leg  (Illustration) 137 

Separation  of  water  in 149 

Specifications  for  boiler  plates 146 

Superiority  of 142 

Tests  of 43,  98 

Helios 1 

Hotel  Majestic  (Illustration) ...  100 

Horse  power  of  boilers 68,  72,  79 

of  engines 95 

of  pumping  engines  91 

Hoster  Brewing  Co.  (Illustration) 169 

Impurities  in  Heine  Boilers.     Precipitation  and  discharge  of 150 

in  water 55 

Inch  in  decimals.     Fractions  of,  Table  75  156 

in  decimals  of  a  foot,  Table  76 157 

in  decimals  of  a  square  foot.     Square,  Table  77 158 

Incrustation.     Causes  of 55,  58 

Effects  of „ 57,  59 

Means  of  preventing 57,  58,  59 

Independence  Mine  (Illustration)  27 

Iron.     Weight  of  round  and  square,  Table  74 156 

Kansas  City  Waterworks  (Illustration) 80 

Latent  and  sensible  heat 7 

Latent  heat  of  expansion  7 

Length.     French  and  U.  S.  measures  of,  Table  70 160 

Lignite  and  asphalt 25 

Lignite.     Composition  of 26 

Liquid  fuels 31 

Liquid.     French  and  U.  S.  measures  of,  Table  82 161 

Heating  by  steam : 88 

List  of  Heine  Boiler  plants 166 

Longitudinal  section  of  Heine  Boiler  (Illustration) 139 

Loss  of  head  in  pipes  due  to  bends 66 

of  pressure  in  feed  pipes,  Table  36 65 

Mallinckrodt  Building  (Illustration)  83 

Marquette  Building  (Illustration)  183 

Mean  effective  pressure,  diagram,  Table  56 : 96 

Measurement  of  water 64 

Measures  of  heat 5 

Mechanical  unit  of  power 5 

Melting  points  of  metals  and  solids,  Table  5 1 8 

Metal  plates.     Weight  of,  Table  73 155 

Minneapolis  Exposition   (Illustration) 97 

Modes  of  firing 25 

Motion  of  steam 74 

Municipal  and  County  Building,  Toronto  (Illustration) 33 

Natural  Gas 52,  53 

Analysis  of,  Table  32 

New  Planters'  House  (Illustration)  63 

Oil  as  a  fuel 32 

Advantages  of 32 

Oil  in  boilers.     Effect  of 61 

Operation  of  Heine  Boilers  138 

—186— 


Page. 

Orleans  Traction  Co.  (Illustration) 21 

Outflow  of  steam,  Tables  42,  43 74 

* 

Peoria  Water  Works  (Illustration 176 

Petroleum.     Composition  of,  Table  19 

Petroleum  oils.     Composition  of,  Table  20 32 

Philadelphia  and  Reading  R.  R.  Station   (Illustration) 46 

Pipe  coverings,  Table  61 107 

Pipes.     Condensation  of  steam  in 106 

Condensation  of  steam  in,  uncovered,  Table  60 106 

Condensation  of  steam  in,  covered,  Table  61  106 

Loss  of  pressure  in  feed,  Table  36 65 

Loss  of  head  due  to  bends  in,  Table  37 66 

Rate  of  flow  of  water  in,  Table  35 65 

Size  of  boiler  feed 65 

Standard  sizes  of  gas  and  water,  Table  84 162 

Standard  sizes  of  extra  strong  gas  and  water,  Table  85 163 

Standard  sizes  of  double  extra  strong  gas  and  water,  Table  86 164 

Plant.     A  modern  boiler 124 

Plants.    List  of  Heine  Boiler 166 

Artificial  ice  and  refrigerating  companies 168 

Breweries  and  distilleries _ 171 

Cable  and  electric  street  railway  companies 172 

Electric  light,  power  and  gas  companies  174 

Flour  mills 168 

Hotels,  offices  and  public  buildings  166 

Iron  and  steel  manufacturers 167 

Iron  furnaces 177 

Mining,  coal  and  smelting  companies 177 

Miscellaneous 178 

Packing  houses 178 

Rice  and  oil  mills 172 

Sugar  plantations 171 

Water  works 176 

Plates.    Specification  for  boiler 146 

Plugs.    Fusible,  Table  5 8 

Power.   Concentration  and  distribution  of 121 

Electrical  units  of 5 

Mechanical  units  of 5 

Relation  of  units  of,  Table  1 6 

Relation  of  French  and  U.  S.  units  of,  Table  2 6 

Relation  of  French  and  U.  S.  compound  units  of,  Table  3 6 

Water 5 

Pressure.     Mean  effective 96 

Mean  effective,  diagram,  Table  56 96 

Pulaski  Iron  Works  (Illustration) 86 

Pump.     Example  of  pressure  on  plunger  of 66 

Pumping  engines.     Duty  of 91,  92 

Feed  water  required  by,  Table  55 92 

Horse  power  and  steam  consumption  of 91 

Radiating  surface.     Heat  transmitted  by,  Table  55 87 

Rating  of  boilers 68,  72,  79 

Relation  of  boiler  to  contents  of  building,  Table  52 88 

of  boiler  to  radiating  surface 88 

of  units  of  power,  Tables  1,  2,  3  6 

Relative  values  of  fuel  gases,  Table  21.. 45 

Safety  at  high  pressures  of  Heine  Boilers 146 

Safety  valves 89 

Philadelphia  rule  for 91 

by  Philadelphia  rule.     Dimensions  of,  Table  54 91 

United  States  rule  for 89 

Saturated  steam.     Properties  of,  Table  41  72 

Scale  (see  Incrustation). 

Section  of  Heine  Boiler  (Illustration) 139 

of  water  leg  of  Heine  Boiler  (Illustration) 137 

Sectional  boilers.     Cast-iron  end  connections  (Illustration) 148 

Sensible  and  latent  heats 7 

Separation  of  water  in  Heine  Boilers 149 

Schichau  engine  (Illustration)  161 

Sizes  of  feed  pipes 65 

Sizes  of  chimneys,  Table  68 118 

—187— 


Page. 

Solids.     Expansion  of,  Table  6  10 

Melting  points  of  metals  and,  Table  5 8 

Specific  heat,  Table  7 11 

Specifications  for  boiler  plates  for  Heine  Boilers ...146 

Square  feet  in  square  inches.     Decimals  of,  Table  78 159 

Square  inches  in  decimals  of  a  square  foot,  Table  77 158 

Stacks  (see  Chimneys). 

Standard  sizes  of  boiler  tubes,  Table  87 164 

of  gas  and  water  pipes,  Tables  84,  85,  86  162,  163,  164 

Steam 71 

Condensation  in  pipes,  Tables  60,  61  106 

Heating  buildings  by : 83 

Heating  liquids  by 88 

Heating  water  by,  Table  53 89 

in  Heine  Boilers.     Dryness  of 149 

Motion  of 74 

Outflow  of,  Tables  42,  43 74,  75 

Properties  of  saturated,  Table  41 72 

Superheated 76 

Value  of  dry 75 

Straw 31 

Composition  of,  Table  18  31 

Heat  of  combustion  of  31 

Substances.     Boiling  point  of,  Table  4 8 

Surface.     French  and  United  States  measures  of,  Table  80 160 

Relation  of  boiler  to  radiating 88 

Transmission  of  heat  by  radiating,  Table  51 87 

Superheated  steam 76 

Superiority  of  Heine  Boilers 142 

Tan  bark 31 

Temperature  of  combustion,  Table  10 16 

Tests  of  Heine  Boilers,  Table  57 98 

of  steam  boilers.     Code  of  rules  (see  Boiler  Tests) 99 

Toronto  Municipal  and  County  Buildings  (Illustration) 33 

Transmission  of  heat  by  radiating  surfaces,  Table  51 87 

Tubes.     Standard  sizes  of  boiler,  Table  87 164 

Unit.     British  thermal 5 

Units  of  heat  and  power,  Tables  1,  2,  3 6 

of  power.     Mechanical 5 

of  power.     Electrical 5 

United  States  and  French  measures  of  length,  Table  79 160 

measures  of  liquids,  Table  82 161 

measures  of  surface,  Table  80 160 

measures  of  volume,  Table  83 161 

measures  of  weight,  Table  81 160 

Valves.     Safety 89 

Safety,  Philadelphia  rules  for 91 

Safety,  dimensions  of  by  Philadelphia  rules,  Table  54 91 

Safety,  United  States  rules  for 88,  91 

Velocity  of  chimney  gases 114 

Ventilation.     Amount  of  air  necessary  for,  Table  50  87 

Volume  of  gaseous  products  of  combustion 14 

French  and  United  States  measures  of,  Table  83 161 

Walling  in  of  Heine  Boilers 136 

Washburn  Flour  Mill  (Illustration) 40 

Water 55 

Water.     Analysis,  Table  33  60 

Commercial  analysis  of 57 

Water  Gas.     Analysis,  Table  29 49 

Cost,  Table  31 52 

Water.     Heating  feed,  Table  39 69,  70 

Heating  by  steam,  Table  53 89 

Impurities  in 55 

L,eg  of  Heine  Boilers  (Illustration)  149 

Loss  of  pressure  in  pipes,  Table  36 65 

Measurement  of 64 

Power 5 

Rate  of  flow  in  pipes,  Table  35 65 

required  per  horse  power 55,  68,  69 

required  by  condensers 95 

—188— 


Page. 

Water.     Weight  of ...55,  64,  72 

Weight  required  for  engines,  Tables  38,  39 68,  69 

Weight.  French  and  United  States  measures  of,  Table  81 160 

and  measures  of  coal 19 

of  metal  plates,  Table  73... 

of  square  and  round  Iron,  Table  74 156 

of  water 56,  64,  72 

of  wood,  Table  17 28 

Wood 26 

Composition  of,  Table  15 26 

equivalent  of  coal 28 

Gases  from  the  combustion  of  one  pound,  Table  16 28 

Weight  of,  Table  17 28 


3  1175005399962 


